Sacred natural sites and biodiversity conservation: a systematic review

Abstract

Sacred natural sites (SNS) have gained recognition from conservationists, and are regarded as the oldest form of habitat protection in human history. Many case studies and literature reviews have been published on the subject. However, an updated and global-level synthesis on the effect of SNS on biodiversity conservation is still lacking. Here, we provide the first systematic review on SNS and biodiversity conservation, aiming to evaluate the effect of SNS across different: (i) continents; (ii) taxa; (iii) metrics. We checked 2750 papers and by applying inclusion criteria we selected 27 relevant papers. From these, we extracted descriptive data and 131 comparisons between SNS and Reference Sites. We applied vote-counting, multinomial and binomial post-hoc tests to the 131 comparisons. We found strong evidence that SNS have a positive effect on biodiversity, but also strong geographical and taxonomical biases, with most research focusing on Asia and Africa and on plants. We found that SNS have mainly positive effects on taxonomical diversity, vegetation structure and cultural uses of biodiversity. Our results strongly support the view that SNS have positive effects on biodiversity across continents and geographical settings, as found in a number of local studies and earlier overviews. These effects should be given official recognition in appropriate conservation frameworks, together with the specific forms of governance and management that characterize SNS. At the same time, further efforts are also required to fill the geographical and taxonomical gaps here highlighted, and to advancing our knowledge of SNS through more systematic research.

Heritage of ancient cultures supports conservation: a continent-wide perspective from the Eurasian steppes

“…In order to maintain the societal functions and provide a well-kept appearance of such kurgans, continuous extensive management is often provided by mowing and elimination of woody vegetation, which can also benefit grassland maintenance (Deák et al; 2020b). This phenomenon shows considerable similarities with the management of SNSs (sacred grooves, saint mountains, shrines, graveyards or church gardens), which can be found across the Globe and are traditionally extensively managed by the local populations for non-production purposes (Zannini et al, 2021).…”

“…This pattern is especially important as kurgans with cultural protection are generally situated in heavily transformed, densely populated anthropogenic lowland landscapes, where grassland habitats are critically endangered (and 13% of kurgans outside PAs hold cultural values). In this respect, kurgans show similarity with sacred natural sites (SNSs) such as church yards, shrines or old cemeteries, which can also preserve parts of the former natural habitats in landscapes under a high anthropogenic pressure (Löki et al; 2019, Kowarik et al, 2016; Zannini et al, 2021).…”

Valuing Ecosystem Services of Sacred Natural Sites in the Anthropocene: A Case Study of Varanasi, India

“…Nonetheless, SNS are generally ignored in national and sub-national policies and actions for ecosystem management (Rutte 2011). Local studies on SNS can highlight the role of these sites in biodiversity conservation, provision of ecosystem services (Jackson and Ormsby 2017; Zannini et al 2021) and sustainable development (Verschuuren 2010).…”

Investigating sacred natural sites and protected areas for forest area changes in Italy

“…SNS are defined as "areas of land or water holding special spiritual significance for people and communities" (Wild & McLeod, 2008) and are often regarded as the oldest form of habitat protection in human history. They can be viewed as forming a shadow network of unofficial PAs which conserves biodiversity, provides ecosystem services, and potentially strengthens the "official" protected network (Avtzis et al, 2018;Dudley et al, 2009;Frascaroli et al, 2019;Zannini et al, 2021). SNS are often found in association with ancient forest remnants (see e.g., Cardelús et al, 2013;Shakeri et al, 2021) and have been shown to locally halt or reduce deforestation (Campbell, 2004(Campbell, , 2005.…”