Saffold virus, an emerging human cardiovirus

Abstract

Saffold virus (SAFV) is an emerging human cardiovirus that has been shown to be ubiquitous. Initial studies of SAFV focused on respiratory and gastrointestinal infection; however, it has also recently been associated with diverse clinical symptoms including the endocrine, cardiovascular, and neurological systems. Given the systemic nature of SAFV, and its high prevalence, understanding its pathogenicity and clinical impact is of utmost importance. This comprehensive review highlights and discusses recent developments in epidemiology, human pathogenicity, animal, and molecular studies related to SAFV. It also provides detailed insights into the neuropathogenicity of SAFV. We argue that human studies have been confounded by coinfections and therefore require support from robust molecular and animal research. Thereby, we aim to provide foresight into further research to better understand this emerging virus.

The Origin, Dynamic Morphology, and PI4P-Independent Formation of Encephalomyocarditis Virus Replication Organelles

“…Among these coinfecting viruses are the enteroviruses ( 7 , 8 ), another genus of picornaviruses that includes poliovirus, the coxsackieviruses, rhinoviruses, and enteroviruses A71 and D68. Although the consequences of enterovirus and Saffold virus infections in coinfected patients are entwined, there are suggestions that Saffold virus could cause or contribute to diseases as diverse as gastroenteritis, encephalitis, myocarditis, and nonpolio acute flaccid paralysis (reviewed in reference 9 ), which are typically associated with enterovirus infections.…”

Recombination Located over 2A-2B Junction Ribosome Frameshifting Region of Saffold Cardiovirus

“…Recently, another species in the genus cardiovirus was isolated from humans and was named Saffold virus (SAFV) [ 2 , 22 ]. Although the connection between human disease and SAFV infection has not been completely elucidated, there is growing evidence for the involvement of SAFV in acute respiratory infections and inflammation of the myocardium [ 4 , 13 ]. Epidemiological surveys indicate that SAFV is spread worldwide, infecting mainly young children.…”

“…Phylogenetic studies performed on the VP1 gene region of SAFV suggest that there are distinct genotypes (SAFV-1 to SAFV-11) [ 7 , 8 , 9 ]. Genotypes SAFV-1, SAFV-2 and SAFV-3 are well-defined phylogenetic clades that are globally distributed while genotypes SAFV-4 through SAFV-11 were previously found only in Afghanistan and Pakistan [ 1 , 7 , 8 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ].…”

Detection of Saffold viruses from children with acute respiratory infections in Yamagata, Japan, between 2008 and 2015

“…In 2007, Saffold virus (SAFV) was initially recovered from a cell culture of fecal specimen collected in 1981 from an 8‐month‐old child with fever of unknown origin, and was classified as member of the genus Cardiovirus , family Picornaviridae as a novel human cardiovirus . Eleven genotypes of SAFV have since been characterized based on complete viral protein 1 (VP1) region analysis .…”

“…Although SAFVs have been detected in children presenting with acute respiratory infections (ARIs), gastroenteritis, and neurological diseases, no causative association between the virus and presenting symptoms has been proven as a significant proportion of healthy children also excrete the virus and it has a high coinfection rate with common pathological agents . In reality, the description provided for SAFVs in the latest pediatrics and infectious disease‐related textbooks published in 2014‐2015 runs to only a few lines if at all in the chapters dealing with picornaviruses, and almost all available published papers related to SAFV, which were reviewed by Tan et al, are quite limited with few SAFV strains detected . Thus, further epidemiological studies of SAFVs, especially those based on large sample populations across many countries, are required to determine the true epidemiology of SAFV …”