Salivary Antioxidants Status Following Progressive Aerobic Exercise: What Are the Differences between Waterpipe Smokers and Non-Smokers?

Abstract

Waterpipe tobacco (WPT) smoking is a public health problem with similar or even stronger effects than cigarette smoking. Although it appears to be associated with extensive oxidative stress, there is a limited number of studies on the oxidative effects of WPT smoking in stressful conditions. We, therefore, compared the responses of salivary flow rate (SFR), uric acid (UA) concentration, and peroxidase (POX) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate (DPPH) activities between WPT smokers and non-smokers following a bout of exhaustive aerobic exercise (AE). Twenty-three sedentary young women (age: 22.95 ± 2.83 years) participated in this study, including 11 smokers (7.00 ± 1.41 uses/week) and 12 non-smokers. All participants were required to perform the Bruce protocol treadmill test at an initial gradient of 10% at 1.7 mph, with increases of these parameters every 3 min until exhaustion. Unstimulated saliva samples were collected before, immediately after, and 1 hour after AE. WPT smokers showed lower SFR compared with non-smokers at all time points (p < 0.05). In comparison to WPT smokers, a larger increase in POX activity (approximately 23% vs. 14%; p = 0.009) and a smaller decline in DPPH activity (approximately −8% vs. −15%; p = 0.004) were found in non-smokers compared with WPT smokers. While these changes were slowly compensated within 1 hour after exhaustion, the activity of both markers was different from the pre-exercise values (p < 0.001). There was also a trend for UA concentration in non-smokers to be higher during the recovery period, with no significant difference between the groups (p > 0.05). It seems that WPT smoking is associated with negative effects on important human antioxidants and a diminished antioxidative response following acute exercise.

Oxidative Stress and Inflammation Induced by Waterpipe Tobacco Smoking Despite Possible Protective Effects of Exercise Training: A Review of the Literature

“…The underlying mechanisms responsible for adverse health effects of WTS might be attributed to induction of oxidative stress and inflammation. Oxidative stress is a situation in which there is a transient or chronic imbalance between the amount of ROS and the antioxidant capacity, affecting the homeostasis of the redox state and leading to local and systemic inflammation [ 12 , 13 ].…”

“…Even though the people who use waterpipe are aware of the health risks of WTS, they perceived it as less hazardous and less addictive than cigarette smoking [ 10 ]. Indeed, at least part of the popularity of WTS is due to the common misperception that the water will filter the smoke and thus this method of tobacco smoking is safer than cigarettes [ 11 , 12 ]. On the other hand, socializing, relaxation, pleasure and entertainment are considered as the main motives for WTS popularity [ 10 ].…”

“…Currently, it is well-documented that WTS on both a short- and long-term basis is probably associated with a variety of adverse health outcomes including cardiovascular and respiratory disease, several types of cancer and an increased risk of mortality [ 13 , 14 , 15 ]. Moreover, there is overwhelming evidence that the impact of WTS on inflammatory responses and antioxidant status is similar or even worse than that of cigarette smoking [ 11 , 12 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ]. In this context, Khabour et al showed that acute (7 days) [ 11 ] and chronic (6 weeks) [ 16 ] exposure to waterpipe tobacco smoke induced significant alterations in inflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress markers and absolute count of macrophages, lymphocytes and neutrophils in the lung of mice.…”

“…In this context, Khabour et al showed that acute (7 days) [ 11 ] and chronic (6 weeks) [ 16 ] exposure to waterpipe tobacco smoke induced significant alterations in inflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress markers and absolute count of macrophages, lymphocytes and neutrophils in the lung of mice. In general, it can be stated according to the relevant literature that WTS-induced oxidative stress that initiates local and systemic inflammation status is the main mechanism of its deleterious health effects [ 11 , 12 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 ].…”

“…While skeletal muscle contractions—for example, during exercise training—are a generating source of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are necessary for normal physiological functions according to hormesis phenomenon [ 12 , 21 ], WTS produces large amounts of ROS that have adverse reactions to lipids, DNA, and proteins [ 22 ]. It is generally agreed that regular exercise training with the appropriate intensity and duration improves immune functions, such as recirculation of neutrophils and anti-inflammatory cytokines and increasing the functional activity of tissue macrophages, through anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects [ 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 ].…”