SARS-CoV-2 from Urban to Rural Water Environment: Occurrence, Persistence, Fate, and Influence on Agriculture Irrigation. A Review

Abstract

The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19), originating from China, has rapidly crossed borders, infecting people worldwide. While its transmission may occur predominantly via aerosolization of virus-laden droplets, the possibility of other routes of contagion via the environment necessitates considerable scientific consideration. SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA has been detected in the feces of infected persons, and studies also have reported its occurrence in wastewater and surface water bodies. Therefore, water may be a possible route of virus outbreaks. Agricultural irrigation is the largest use of water globally, accounting for 70% of water use worldwide. Ensuring adequate water quality within irrigation practices is fundamental to prevent harm to plants and soils, maintain food safety, and protect public health. This review aims to gather information on possible SARS-CoV-2 transmission routes within urban and rural water environments, looking into the detection, persistence, and fate of SARS-CoV-2. Based on published literature, the effect of current treatment technologies in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) on SARS-CoV-2 inactivation has also been investigated. Preliminary research efforts that concentrated on SARS-CoV-2 indicate that the risk of virus transmission from the aquatic environment may currently be non-existent, although a few studies have reported the presence of SARS-CoV RNA in soils, whereas there are still no studies on the detection of SARS-CoV-2 in crops.

SARS-CoV-2 circulation in Croatian wastewaters and the absence of SARS-CoV-2 in bivalve molluscan shellfish

“…Firm conclusions on this effectiveness would arise following a more comprehensive sampling strategy at each WWTP during the extended time frame. Overall, these findings are concurrent with many similar studies performed so far, emphasizing the suitability of wastewaters as an addition to SARS-CoV-2 monitoring within the community ( Mancuso et al, 2021 ; Tran et al, 2021 ). Higher sampling frequency at each WWTP, reliable number of connected residents reported by city officials and precise city-based epidemiological data for the comparison, would enable the WBE context of the study.…”

“…Tertiary treatment effluents from four WWTPs (Vinkovci, Koprivnica, Karlovac and Slavonski Brod), sampled during the second wave (Vinkovci and Koprivnica during the peak months), were all SARS-CoV-2 negative ( Table 1 ). It is important to emphasize that these tertiary treatment effluents were not disinfected like it was reported elsewhere ( Mancuso et al, 2021 ), indicating that even conventional tertiary treatment may be highly effective in SARS-CoV-2 reduction and removal. Possibly the extended retention of wastewaters in tertiary treatment WWTPs compared to secondary treatment WWTPs has a favourable effect on SARS-CoV-2 removal.…”

A safe haven of SARS-CoV-2 in the environment: Prevalence and potential transmission risks in the effluent, sludge, and biosolids

“…Further, since foodborne transmission of similar viruses through migration or uptake of the virus from the environmental materials to the irrigated crop have been previously reported ( Mullis et al, 2012 , Hirneisen and Kniel, 2013 , Yépiz-Gómez et al, 2013 , Mancuso et al, 2021 ), the risk of viral infections via the consumption of virus-contaminated farm produce, especially fruits and vegetables can lead to the indirect widespread transmission of the virus. The Bovine coronavirus remained infective on the lettuce leaves for at least 14 days (the entire shelf-life) ( Mullis et al, 2012 ), while human coronavirus 229E was partially inactivated by 0.2 logs after 2 days of storage at 4 °C ( Yépiz-Gómez et al, 2013 ).…”

Water, Energy, Food, Waste Nexus: Between Synergy and Trade-Offs in Romania Based on Entrepreneurship and Economic Performance

“…Energy policy can influence water demand [42]. Proactively creating solutions to resource management challenges, achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in time, and responding to the on-going COVID-19-related issues are three factors that amplify the scientific interest for the WEFW nexus [43]. Moreover, the food loss-waste-food security dynamic has also become an ardent topic in the societal and scientific attention, as it contributes to holistically understanding the issues occurred as a result of unsustainable consumption and production patterns [44][45][46].…”