Scaffolds for Cartilage Tissue Engineering from a Blend of Polyethersulfone and Polyurethane Polymers

Abstract

In recent years, one of the main goals of cartilage tissue engineering has been to find appropriate scaffolds for hyaline cartilage regeneration, which could serve as a matrix for chondrocytes or stem cell cultures. The study presents three types of scaffolds obtained from a blend of polyethersulfone (PES) and polyurethane (PUR) by a combination of wet-phase inversion and salt-leaching methods. The nonwovens made of gelatin and sodium chloride (NaCl) were used as precursors of macropores. Thus, obtained membranes were characterized by a suitable structure. The top layers were perforated, with pores over 20 µm, which allows cells to enter the membrane. The use of a nonwoven made it possible to develop a three-dimensional network of interconnected macropores that is required for cell activity and mobility. Examination of wettability (contact angle, swelling ratio) showed a hydrophilic nature of scaffolds. The mechanical test showed that the scaffolds were suitable for knee joint applications (stress above 10 MPa). Next, the scaffolds underwent a degradation study in simulated body fluid (SBF). Weight loss after four weeks and changes in structure were assessed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and MeMoExplorer Software, a program that estimates the size of pores. The porosity measurements after degradation confirmed an increase in pore size, as expected. Hydrolysis was confirmed by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) analysis, where the disappearance of ester bonds at about 1730 cm −1 wavelength is noticeable after degradation. The obtained results showed that the scaffolds meet the requirements for cartilage tissue engineering membranes and should undergo further testing on an animal model.

Polyethersulfone Polymer for Biomedical Applications and Biotechnology

“…As the macropore gen gelatin nonwovens and NaCl salt were used. Unfortunately, membranes have no dergone testing with cells or animal models [42]. (B,C) 300 µm.…”

“…As the macropore generators, gelatin nonwovens and NaCl salt were used. Unfortunately, membranes have not yet undergone testing with cells or animal models [42]. The liver, in contrast to cartilage, has a high potential for regeneration and rebuilding of damaged tissue.…”

“…PES is used in many medical areas and biotechnology. Due to their properties, synthetic polymers can be used in various forms, including membranes/scaffolds, capsules, hydrogel, sponges, or nonwovens [26,[37][38][39][40][41][42].…”

Preparation and Hydrolytic Degradation of Hydroxyapatite-Filled PLGA Composite Microspheres

“…Although there are no problems with toxic effects when using natural polymers for scaffolds manufacture, raw materials from natural sources can vary significantly in their properties, which creates obstacles to obtaining biomedical materials with reproducible characteristics. Although the use of synthetic polymers, such as polyethersulfones, polyurethanes [29], and modified poly(ε-caprolactone) [30], makes it possible to obtain scaffolds with controlled architecture and properties, however lactide and glycolide copolymers (PLGA) remains as the gold standard for implantable synthetic polymers [31].…”