Scanning Probe Microscopy on Inorganic Thin Films for Solar Cells

Grain Boundaries in Cu(In, Ga)Se2: A Review of Composition–Electronic Property Relationships by Atom Probe Tomography and Correlative Microscopy

“…Keeping the STM tip in a fixed position, current ( I )–voltage ( V ) spectroscopy can be used to obtain the local density of states (DOS) by analyzing the derivative d I /d V , from which information about the semiconductor bandgap, defect states in the bandgap, and other electronic sample properties can be extracted. [ 97 ] Providing even more versatility, AFM has been expanded by various additional measurement techniques, typically combining macroscopic measurement principles with the AFM tip as a sensor. [ 97 ] In Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM), the electrostatic forces between the tip and the sample are compensated by applying a bias voltage that corresponds to the contact potential difference (CPD), which equals the work function difference between tip and sample.…”

“…[ 97 ] Providing even more versatility, AFM has been expanded by various additional measurement techniques, typically combining macroscopic measurement principles with the AFM tip as a sensor. [ 97 ] In Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM), the electrostatic forces between the tip and the sample are compensated by applying a bias voltage that corresponds to the contact potential difference (CPD), which equals the work function difference between tip and sample. [ 97 ] In conductive AFM (c‐AFM), an electrically conductive tip with an applied bias voltage is used in a contact‐mode measurement, and simultaneously to the topography measurement, the tip‐sample current is measured.…”

“…[ 97 ] In Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM), the electrostatic forces between the tip and the sample are compensated by applying a bias voltage that corresponds to the contact potential difference (CPD), which equals the work function difference between tip and sample. [ 97 ] In conductive AFM (c‐AFM), an electrically conductive tip with an applied bias voltage is used in a contact‐mode measurement, and simultaneously to the topography measurement, the tip‐sample current is measured. [ 97 ] A related technique, scanning spreading resistance microscopy (SSRM) measures directly the spreading resistance using a logarithmic amplifier.…”

“…[ 97 ] In conductive AFM (c‐AFM), an electrically conductive tip with an applied bias voltage is used in a contact‐mode measurement, and simultaneously to the topography measurement, the tip‐sample current is measured. [ 97 ] A related technique, scanning spreading resistance microscopy (SSRM) measures directly the spreading resistance using a logarithmic amplifier. [ 97 ] Both c‐AFM and SSRM provide spatially resolved maps related to the sample conductivity.…”

“…[ 97 ] A related technique, scanning spreading resistance microscopy (SSRM) measures directly the spreading resistance using a logarithmic amplifier. [ 97 ] Both c‐AFM and SSRM provide spatially resolved maps related to the sample conductivity. In scanning capacitance microscopy (SCM), a highly sensitive capacitance meter measures the tip‐sample capacitance during the measurement.…”