Oral Tradition," Ethnohistory (in press, forthcoming 2003). While traveling around Lake Superior in the 1850s, German explorer Johann Georg Kohl met many retired and elderly French Canadian voyageurs and their Aboriginal wives and families. A constant theme in his discussions with them was privation. One old voyageur reflected that "In my utter misery, I have more than once roasted and eaten my mocassins." 1 Stories about starvation often led to stories about cannibals, such as that of a man who killed and ate his two wives and all his children in succession; another who turned on his friend; and a third who wandered about the forests like a hungry wolf, preying on unsuspecting humans. 2 Much as in the stories of werewolves in European and Euro-American communities, cannibals were frequently portrayed as humans transformed into monsters, terrorizing any that crossed their paths. Kohl reported that in 1854 on Île Royale, close to the north bank of Lake Superior, a "wild man" hunted humans, and was thought to be a windigo. 3 Windigos were specifically Algonquian monsters who ate human flesh and had hearts of ice. 4 Human beings could be transformed into windigos by witchcraft or famine cannibalism. 5 In one story told to Kohl, A Canadian Voyageur, of the name of Le Riche, was once busy fishing near his hut. He had set one net, and was making another on the beach. All at once, when he looked up, he saw, to his terror, a strange woman, an old witch, une femme windigo, standing in the water near his net. She was taking out the fish he had just caught, and eating them raw. Le Riche, to his horror, took up his gun and killed her on the spot. Then his squaws ran out of the adjoining wigwam and shouted '[R]ish!' ... '[R]ish! cut her up at once, or else she'll come to life again, and we shall all fare ill.' 6 2 What can we learn from these stories? On first glance it seems that the French Canadian voyageurs who chose to spend their lives in the pays d'en haut (literally translates as "the country up there") adopted the cultural ways of their Algonquian wives and kin, which included a fear of windigos. Yet the stories reflect more complex cultural movement, a mingling of cosmologies, and oral technologies, distinct to French Canadian voyageurs. The cannibal monster stories that voyageurs told each other reveal many aspects of their lives and cosmology, such as starvation, mental illness, and metamorphosis. In addition, the French Canadian belief in werewolves (loups garoux) provided voyageurs with a framework to understand windigos in French Canadian terms, and in the narratives about cannibal monsters, the motifs of windigo and werewolf mingled. These points of cultural conjunction became a form of métissage outside of the practice of marriage and the birth of métis generations. French Canadian voyageurs came from an oral world where systems of knowledge and meaning were shared through stories and songs. When French peasants crossed the Atlantic to settle in the St. Lawrence valley starting in the first quarter of the seve...