Schistosomiasis, soil transmitted helminthiasis, and malaria co-infections among women of reproductive age in rural communities of Kwale County, coastal Kenya

Abstract

Background Schistosoma haematobium, soil transmitted helminthes (STH), and malaria lead to a double burden in pregnancy that eventually leads to poor immunity, increased susceptibility to other infections, and poor pregnancy outcomes. Many studies have been carried out on pre-school and school aged children but very little has been done among the at risk adult population including women of reproductive age (WRA). Our current study sought to establish the risk factors and burden of co-infection with S. haematobium, STH, and Plasmodium sp. among WRA in Kwale County, Coastal Kenya. Methods A total of 534 WRA between the ages of 15–50 were enrolled in this cross-sectional study from four villages; Bilashaka and Mwaluphamba in Matuga sub-County, and Mwachinga and Dumbule in Kinango sub-County. Socio-demographic information was collected using a pre-tested standardized questionnaire. Parasitological examination was done using urine filtration method for Schistosoma haematobium, Kato Katz for STH (Ascaris lumbricoides, Hookworm, Trichuris trichiura), and standard slide microscopy for Plasmodium sp. Statistical analyses were carried out using STATA version 15.1. Results The overall prevalence of S. haematobium was 3.8% (95% CI: 2.6–5.4) while that for malaria was 4.9% (95% CI: 2.0–11.7). The prevalence of STH was 5.6% (95% CI: 2.8–11.3) with overall prevalence of 5.3% (95% CI: 2.5–10.9) for hookworm and 0.6% (95% CI: 0.2–1.9) for T. trichiura. The occurrence of co-infection was low and was recorded between S. haematobium and P. falciparum (0.6%), followed by S. haematobium and STH (0.4%). Among pregnant women, 2.6% had co-infection with S. haematobium and P. falciparum. Only 1.3% had co-infection with S. haematobium and hookworm or T. trichiura. Among non-pregnant women, co-infection with S. haematobium and P. falciparum was 0.2%. Similarly, co-infection with S. haematobium and hookworm or T. trichiura was 0.2%. Bed net ownership and usage among pregnant women was 87.8 and 96.6%, respectively. 66.3% of the women reported using improved water sources for drinking while 78.1% reported using improved sanitation facilities. Conclusion The use of improved WASH activities might have contributed to the low prevalence of STHs and S. haematobium infections. Further, bed net ownership and usage might have resulted in the low prevalence of Plasmodium sp. infections observed.

Plasmodium falciparum infections and Soil Transmitted helminthes correlates with Anemia in Pregnancy: Cross-Sectional Study in Kwale County, Kenya

“…In our current study, the overall prevalence of Soil-Transmitted Helminthes infections among pregnant women was found to be 6.06% (95% CI: 4.11-8.86). This is in line with a community-based study done in Kwale County among pregnant women documented an overall prevalence of STH infections of 5.6% [17].…”

“…The overall prevalence of hookworm was 4.8%, while that of T. trichiura was 1.2%, which is consistent with ndings from a similar study reporting hookworm and T. trichiura prevalence rates of 5.3% and 0.6%, respectively [17]. The prevalence of Soil-Transmitted Helminthes in our study is lower than that reported by Kihara et al, who documented a 24.8% prevalence of hookworm in women of reproductive age [18].The decline in the prevalence of Soil-Transmitted Helminthes could be attributed to the TUMIKIA project, conducted in Kwale between 2015 and 2017 [24], which involved the annual and bi-annual distribution of albendazole through both school-based and community-based Mass Drug Administration (MDA) programs.…”

“…Kwale County is endemic for both Plasmodium infections and soil-transmitted helminths (STHs). The prevalence of malaria during pregnancy in Kwale County ranges from 8.6-12.9% [3,16,17], while the burden of STHs in pregnant women ranges between 5.6% and 24.8% [17,18].…”

Malaria, Urogenital Schistosomiasis, and Anaemia in Pregnant Ghanaian Women

“…Malaria and schistosomiasis are widespread parasitic infections in tropical and subtropical regions including Ghana [ 4 , 5 ] and pose a double disease burden during pregnancy in coendemic areas. Disease burden seems to be greater in women of reproductive age [ 6 ], often leading to lowered immunity, increased susceptibility to other infections, and poor pregnancy outcomes [ 7 , 8 ]. Another critical complication of malaria and schistosomiasis is anaemia, which could have severe consequences on the health of the mother [ 9 ].…”

“…Schistosomiasis, another known cause of anaemia [ 18 ], affects nearly 200 million people worldwide with considerable economic impact and morbidity [ 6 , 7 , 19 ]. As a disease of poverty, 97% of schistosomiasis infections and 85% of at-risk population live in Africa [ 20 ].…”