Scoping review of the rolling resistance testing methods and factors that impact manual wheelchairs

Abstract

Introduction Rolling resistance (RR) is a drag force acting on manual wheelchairs that is associated with increased propulsion force and is linked to secondary disabling conditions of the upper limbs. A scoping review was conducted to understand how RR of manual wheelchairs has been measured and to identify limitations of those test methods and the factors tested. Methods A total of 42 papers were identified and reviewed, and test methods were categorized based on the measurement style of RR, testing level, and if multiple parameters could be tested. Additionally, 34 articles were reviewed for what factors were tested. Results Seven different testing methods categories were identified: drag test, treadmill, motor draw, deceleration, physiological expenditure, ergometer/dynamometer, and robotic test rig. Relevant articles were categorized into testing factor categories: camber, toe, tire type, tire pressure, caster type, mass, mass distribution, and type of surface. Conclusions The variety of testing methods suggests the need for a standardized method that can be used for wheelchair wheel design and selection to reduce RR. It is important to use adjustments, such as a forward rear axle position to mitigate RR as well as using high-pressure pneumatic tires that are properly inflated.

Comparing rolling resistance of two treadmills and its influence on exercise testing in wheelchair athletics

“…Rolling resistance varies between the two treadmills, likely resulting from different belt material. From previous studies it is known that the surface accounts for a high variance in rolling resistance (Ott and Pearlman, 2021). For example, carpet has approximately 3 times higher rolling resistance than concrete or linoleum (Hoffman et al, 2003;Sauret et al, 2012).…”

“…When the participant was sitting in the wheelchair, he placed his hand on the steering mechanism of the wheelchair. This will result in a forward shift of the center of mass and even a small change in mass distribution can have a significant impact on rolling resistance (Ott and Pearlman, 2021).…”

A novel approach to directly measuring wheel and caster rolling resistance accurately predicts user-wheelchair system-level rolling resistance

“…5 The force required to propel a wheelchair is strongly affected by rolling resistance (RR), which is the force opposing wheelchair movement and due primarily to energy loss from tires and casters. [6][7][8][9] RR is affected by many facets of wheelchair configuration, including, but not limited to weight of the wheelchair and user, front-rear load distribution of user plus wheelchair weight, and rear wheel and caster characteristics. 7,8,10 Wheelchair configuration recommendations in the clinical practice guidelines focus on minimizing weight, optimizing weight distribution and optimizing user propulsion biomechanics in order to reduce repetitive forces on the UE 5 but provide only general directional guidance.…”

“…Two strategies for measuring RR are reported in the literature—system and component-level tests. 8 System-level testing evaluates RR of an entire manual wheelchair-user system, whereas component-level testing evaluates RR of either the caster or rear wheel. System-level methods for measuring manual wheelchair RR include drag, deceleration, cart or robotic rig tests, which are conducted using treadmill equipment or over-ground.…”

Rolling resistance of casters increases significantly after two years of simulated use

“…This new equipment uses a drum for wheel propulsion, and enables these factors to be simulated and varied for characterization of RR, and is referred to as drum-based testing equipment. 18 …”