Drosophila melanogaster as a dynamic in vivo model organism reveals the hidden effects of interactions between microplastic/nanoplastic and heavy metals

Abstract

Plastic waste in different environments has been constantly transforming into microplastic/nanoplastic (MNPLs). As they may coexist with other contaminants, they may behave as vectors that transport various toxic trace elements, including metals.Because the impact of exposure to such matter on health still remains elusive, the abundant presence of MNPLs has lately become a pressing environmental issue.Researchers have been utilizing Drosophila melanogaster as a dynamic in vivo model in genetic research for some time. The fly has also recently gained wider recognition in toxicology and nanogenotoxicity studies. The use of nanoparticles in numerous medical and consumer products raises serious concern, since many in vitro studies have shown their toxic potential. However, there is rather limited in vivo research into nanomaterial genotoxicity using mice or other mammalians owing to high costs and ethical concerns. In this context, Drosophila, thanks to its genetic tractability, short life span, with its entire life cycle lasting about 10 days, and distinct developmental stages, renders this organism an excellent model in testing toxic effects mediated by MNPLs. This review therefore aims to encourage research entities to employ Drosophila as a model in their nanogenotoxicity experiments focusing on impact of MNPLs at the molecular level.

Interactions of Ingested Polystyrene Microplastics with Heavy Metals (Cadmium or Silver) as Environmental Pollutants: A Comprehensive In Vivo Study Using Drosophila melanogaster

“…Such particles, known as secondary microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPLs), could be even more harmful contaminants, so their potential impact on life on Earth should be thoroughly analyzed. Plastic has been used in many consumer and industrial products such as toys, food packaging, automobiles, and electronics [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ], as well as in cosmetic and personal care products [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ].…”

“…Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) has been used in various studies aiming to show the adverse biological effects (morphological changes, gut damage, phenotypic and behavioral effect, fertility, oxidative stress, gene expression and epigenetic effects, metabolic diseases, etc.) of different types of micro/nanoplastics [ 7 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 ]. Along with its ability to produce many generations in a short time (over 20 generations each year), D. melanogaster , on the other hand, allows scientists to circumvent common ethical restrictions placed on the use of higher vertebrates in experiments, namely, the principles of the three Rs: replacement, refinement, and reduction, which govern the treatment of laboratory animals [ 52 ].…”

“…Along with its ability to produce many generations in a short time (over 20 generations each year), D. melanogaster , on the other hand, allows scientists to circumvent common ethical restrictions placed on the use of higher vertebrates in experiments, namely, the principles of the three Rs: replacement, refinement, and reduction, which govern the treatment of laboratory animals [ 52 ]. In view of such complications, this fruit fly species stands out as the most convenient model among all alternative testing models [ 7 , 53 , 54 ]. Moreover, pressure from the public and animal rights institutions has forced researchers to conduct in vitro studies instead of experimenting on mammals [ 8 , 55 , 56 ].…”

“…Moreover, pressure from the public and animal rights institutions has forced researchers to conduct in vitro studies instead of experimenting on mammals [ 8 , 55 , 56 ]. Therefore, they have recently resorted to using lower eukaryotic models such as fruit flies ( D. melanogaster) [ 7 , 57 , 58 ], zebrafish ( Danio rerio ) [ 59 , 60 ], and roundworms ( Caenorhabditis elegans ) [ 61 ]. Numerous studies have begun to carry out nanotoxicity and nanogenotoxicity experiments on D. melanogaster , using somatic cells as targets to assess harmful effects on exposed flies without waiting for subsequent generations.…”

Hazard Assessment of the Effects of Acute and Chronic Exposure to Permethrin, Copper Hydroxide, Acephate, and Validamycin Nanopesticides on the Physiology of Drosophila: Novel Insights into the Cellular Internalization and Biological Effects

“…D. melanogaster (commonly known as the fruit fly or vinegar fly) (Diptera: Drosophilidae) is a dynamic eukaryotic testing model in genetic and molecular research into human genetic diseases. As an in vivo model organism, Drosophila contains approximately 75–77% of genes with homologs in humans [ 64 , 65 ], responsible for diseases such as Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, cardiovascular diseases, immune disorders, and intestinal infections [ 66 , 67 ]. Even though there have been several studies into the effects of nanopesticides on target organisms [ 68 , 69 , 70 ], it is equally crucial to analyze the effects of nanopesticides on non-target species.…”