Seasonal assessment of drinking water sources in Rwanda using GIS, contamination degree (Cd), and metal index (MI)

Abstract

The quality of drinking water source remains as a major concern in areas of developing and underdeveloped countries worldwide. The treatment and supply of drinking water in Rwanda are carried out by Water and Sanitation Corporation, a state-owned public company. However, it is not able to supply water to all households. Consequently, the non-serviced households depend on natural water sources, like springs, to meet their water requirements. Nevertheless, the water quality in these springs is scarcely known. Therefore, this study assessed and compared metal elements in drinking water sources in the dry and rainy seasons in 2017 using the contamination degree, metal index, and geographic information systems to reveal the spatial distribution of water quality within the considered water sources of springs in Rwanda. The samples were collected monthly from nine water sources of springs and the measured elements are aluminium, calcium, copper, iron, manganese, and zinc. The metal index indicated that during the dry season and rainy season, the sites of Kibungo (1.10 and 1.26) and Kinigi (1.01 and 1.54) have assessed a metal index which is higher than 1. Thus, the water quality of those sites was getting the threshold of warning. The analysis indicated that pollutants are easily transported into water bodies during the rainy season in urban and rural areas to a greater extent than during the dry season .

Spatio-seasonal variation of water quality influenced by land use and land cover in Lake Muhazi

“…The long dry season lasts from June and runs to early September and the short dry season lasts from December to the end of February. The average temperature vary between 19 and 27 °C 4 . Therefore, water samples were collected during two field campaigns: one in the dry season (from 20 July to 28 Sep 2018), another in the rainy season (from 12 Oct to 22 Dec 2018).…”

“…Worldwide, the deterioration of surface water quality due to the increasing effects of human activities and climate change have caused great concern 4 , 5 . The water quality is endangered by both point and non-point source pollution.…”

Profiling of processors for baked and fried wheat based products in Nairobi Kenya

“…There is need to increase puree use, improve nutrition and volume, there is need to target replacement or minimizing wheat flour (Gurung et al, 2016). According to other studies (Mukanyandwi et al, 2019), location determines production trends and frequency of operation as it has direct impact on customers' preferences and customers will shy away from unhealthy environments. Additionally, location determines the type of raw materials used in production as a result of social class and purchasing ability, hence the smaller MSMEs will go for what they can afford as opposed to what is currently trending as the best (Caswell et al, 2013).…”

“…Additionally, location determines the type of raw materials used in production as a result of social class and purchasing ability, hence the smaller MSMEs will go for what they can afford as opposed to what is currently trending as the best (Caswell et al, 2013). Larger enterprises are attributed to better packaging materials, frequency of operations and better markets as opposed to smaller MSMEs whose customers are majorly locals consisting of street passersby (Connor et al, 2020;Mukanyandwi et al, 2019).…”

An Assessment of Barriers to MSMEs’ Adoption of CSA in Livestock Red Meat Value Chain, Kajiado County, Kenya

“…They typically need to see some evidence that the practice or concept works and they will be willing to adopt, evidence of success stories may be the best strategies to be used in appealing to these category (Zhang et al, 2015). The late majority are the fourth group, they represent people who are skeptical, those who cannot take risks and can only risk adoption after a majority of people have tried it, then finally are the last group called laggards who basically lag behind others, they are very conservative and bound by tradition, they resist change and looking into the study area in which livestock is basically for prestige, this category is the group who may not be able to embrace climate-smart livestock practices, they therefore need to be taken out of their fear and will only adopt when they have no other choice but to do so (Mukanyandwi et al, 2019;Smith et al, 2018;Zhang et al, 2015).…”