Seasonal Phenology of the Major Insect Pests of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) and Their Natural Enemies in a Traditional Zone and Two New Production Zones of Peru

Abstract

Over the last decade, the sown area of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) has been increasingly expanding in Peru, and new production fields have emerged, stretching from the Andes to coastal areas. The fields at low altitudes have the potential to produce higher yields than those in the highlands. This study investigated the occurrence of insect pests and the natural enemies of quinoa in a traditional production zone, San Lorenzo (in the Andes), and in two new zones at lower altitudes, La Molina (on the coast) and Majes (in the “Maritime Yunga” ecoregion), by plant sampling and pitfall trapping. Our data indicated that the pest pressure in quinoa was higher at lower elevations than in the highlands. The major insect pest infesting quinoa at high densities in San Lorenzo was Eurysacca melanocampta; in La Molina, the major pests were E. melanocampta, Macrosiphum euphorbiae and Liriomyza huidobrensis; and in Majes, Frankliniella occidentalis was the most abundant pest. The natural enemy complex played an important role in controlling M. euphorbiae and L. huidobrensis by preventing pest resurgence. The findings of this study may assist quinoa producers (from the Andes and from regions at lower altitudes) in establishing better farming practices in the framework of integrated pest management.

Field Evaluation of Cypermethrin, Imidacloprid, Teflubenzuron and Emamectin Benzoate against Pests of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) and Their Side Effects on Non-Target Species

“…During the last decade, the cultivated area of quinoa has substantially increased in South American countries such as Ecuador, Chile and particularly Bolivia and Peru [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. In the case of Peru, the production areas have extended to lower elevations, reaching even the coastal level [ 5 ]. Moreover, there have been attempts of cultivating quinoa outside of its Andean place of origin, in countries such as the United States of America, the United Kingdom and a number of other European countries [ 6 , 7 ].…”

“…Moreover, there have been attempts of cultivating quinoa outside of its Andean place of origin, in countries such as the United States of America, the United Kingdom and a number of other European countries [ 6 , 7 ]. Therefore, recent efforts have been made to adapt the cultivation of quinoa under non-Andean conditions, including studies regarding to the entomofauna associated with the crop [ 5 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ].…”

“…At the coastal level, the number of relevant phytophagous insects infesting quinoa is substantially larger. These include species of wide distribution such as the cosmopolitan aphids ( Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas)), thrips ( Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande)) and leafminer flies ( Liriomyza huidobrensis Blanchard); and also others of neotropical distribution such as certain true bugs ( Nysius simulans Stål and Liorhyssus hyalinus (Fabricius)) and lepidopteran larvae (i.e., E. melanocampta , Chloridea virescens (Fabricius), Spoladea recurvalis Fabricius)) that feed on the developing grains [ 2 , 5 , 11 ]. Under this scenario, farmers may be prompted to apply more pesticides than quinoa growers from the highlands.…”

“…The compound acts by direct contact, causing neuronal hyperexcitation alongside the axon [ 10 , 14 ]. Due to its relatively short residual effects and lower price, this pesticide is often overused, causing environmental issues and promoting resistance in pest insects [ 5 , 10 ]. The adverse effects of cypermethrin on non-target organisms are widely documented [ 15 , 16 ].…”

“…This compound may effectively control a range of phytophagous insects noted to be pests of quinoa (including aphids, thrips, true bugs and some lepidopteran species). This neurotoxic insecticide of the neonicotinoid group, is an acetylcholine receptor agonist with broad spectrum and highly systemic activity, acting by ingestion and direct contact, causing neuronal hyperexcitation at the level of the synapses [ 5 , 21 ]. Toxicity of imidacloprid to non-target organisms, including beneficial species such as pollinators (i.e.…”