Second Life of Used Lithium-Ion Batteries from Electric Vehicles in the USA

Abstract

This article focuses on the reuse and recycling of end-of-life (EOL) lithium-ion batteries (LIB) in the USA in the context of the rapidly growing electric vehicle (EV) market. Due to the recent increase in the enactment of both current and pending regulations concerning EV battery recycling, this work focuses on the recycling aspect for lithium-ion batteries rather than emphasizing the reuse of EOL batteries (although these practices have value and utility). A comparative analysis of various recycling methods is presented, including hydrometallurgy, pyrometallurgy, direct recycling, and froth flotation. The efficiency and commercial viability of these individual methods are highlighted. This article also emphasizes the practices and capabilities of leading companies, noting their current superior annual processing capacities. The transportation complexities of lithium-ion batteries are also discussed, noting that they are classified as hazardous materials and that stringent safety standards are needed for their handling. The study underscores the importance of recycling in mitigating environmental risks associated with EOL of LIBs and facilitates comparisons among the diverse recycling processes and capacities among key players in the industry.

Sustainable Management of Rechargeable Batteries Used in Electric Vehicles

“…As stated by Bobba et al [10], Fan et al [11], Quan et al [12], and Gains et al [13], once batteries degrade to an 80% charging capacity, they are not effectively usable in EVs; nonetheless, those batteries still have significant capacity within them, making them suitable for reuse in other applications. In fact, Picatoste et al [14] argue that, given the high cost of manufacturing EV batteries and the impact of their production on the environment, it is imperative to maximize the useful lifespans of these batteries by repurposing them in different scenarios because the energy needed to recycle batteries directly after their initial use in EVs is greater than the environmental benefits resulting from the recycling effort [15,16]. While Kotak et al [15] contend that when it comes to EV batteries, there are countless possibilities for second-life applications, the majority of the literature identified for this research focuses on repurposing batteries within an Energy Storage System (ESS).…”