Sedimentology and Diagenesis of the Early–Middle Eocene Carbonate Deposits of the Ceno-Tethys Ocean

Abstract

An integrated study based on field observation, petrography, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) on the Early–Middle Eocene carbonate rocks has been carried out, which were deposited in the Ceno-Tethys Ocean. The study area of the Yadgaar Section lies on the eastern margin of the Upper Indus Basin, Pakistan. The Early–Middle Eocene Margalla Hill Limestone and Chorgali Formation act as reservoir rocks in other parts of the basin and are also present in the Yadgaar Section. The lack of comprehensive study in this area makes these reservoir rocks highly attractive for sedimentological evaluations and future exploration of hydrocarbons. The Early–Middle Eocene carbonate rocks are divided into nine microfacies: dolomicritic foraminiferal mudstone–wackestone microfacies (EMI); green algae dominated, mixed foraminiferal wackestone–packstone microfacies (EMII); ostracod, green algae and gypsum dominating mudstone–wackestone microfacies (EMIII); algae and mixed foraminiferal wackestone–packstone microfacies (EMIV); Nummulites dominating mudstone–wackestone microfacies (EMV); algal limestone mudstone microfacies (EMVI); Assilina bed wackestone–packstone microfacies (EMVII); micritized larger benthic foraminiferal wackestone–packstone microfacies (EMVIII); and algal limestone, mudstone microfacies (EMIX). The transgressive-regressive environment in the Ceno-Tethys Ocean leads to the deposition of these microfacies in the platform interior, open marine platform, platform edge, platform margin reef, toe of the slope apron, arid–humid platform interior, platform edge, open marine platform interior, and restricted marine platform interior, respectively. Initial post-depositional diagenetic stages are identified from the base to the top of the strata by their respective cement types, i.e., the base–lower middle part of the strata demonstrates an eogenetic sub-stage with the appearance of drusy cement, the middle section indicates a mesogenetic sub-stage by the appearance of blocky cement, while the top portion again reveals an eogenetic sub-stage of diagenesis by the presence of drusy and blocky types of cement. The ascending–descending hierarchy of cement generations is directly proportional to the grade of diagenesis from the base to the top of the carbonate strata. Variable diagenetic effects on the various microfacies also increase the secondary porosity range and enhance the reservoir characteristics of the Formations. The presence of foraminifera microfossils determined that these carbonate formations date from the Early–Middle Eocene.

Sedimentary and Diagenetic Controls across the Cretaceous—Paleogene Transition: New Paleoenvironmental Insights of the External Ionian Zone from the Pelagic Carbonates of the Gardiki Section (Epirus, Western Greece)

“…The microfacies' definition and textural characters analysis of the carbonate rocks were defined according to Dunham [41] classification scheme, which were later modified by Embry and Klovan [42] and Flügel [43], based on the Standard Microfacies Types (SMF) in the Facies Zone (FZ) of the rimmed carbonate platform model. Depositional paleoenvironments were reconstructed based on the observed sedimentological characteristics during fieldwork and interpreted sedimentary facies analysis, and through comparison with additional outcropped data known from the existing literature on time equivalent deposits of the Ionian basin [18][19][20]44,45], as well as other environmental studies [46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53][54]. The study part of Gardiki section consists of Late Cretaceous-Early Paleocene pelagic deposits, such as pelagic limestones and radiolarian chert horizons.…”

Sedimentological, Diagenetic, and Sequence Stratigraphic Controls on the Shallow to Marginal Marine Carbonates of the Middle Jurassic Samana Suk Formation, North Pakistan

“…Following the formation of the Chichali and Lumshiwal Formations. The rapid northward movement resulted in the depth of the Indian Plate's NW section and the formation of homoclinal ramps, which resulted in the deposition of micritic carbonates as the Kawagarh Formation [36,42]. The Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary denotes an unconformable contact between the overlying Cenozoic succession and the Mesozoic succession.…”

Sedimentological Controls on the Reservoir Characteristics of the Mid-Triassic Tredian Formation in the Salt and Trans-Indus Surghar Ranges, Pakistan: Integration of Outcrop, Petrographic, and SEM Analyses

“…The TIR comprises the Surghar Range, the Shinghar Range, the Marwat-Khisor Ranges, the Manzai Range, and the Sheikh Badin Hills. The Surghar Range (SR) marks the eastern extremity of the Trans-Indus Ranges [28,29] (Figure 1).…”