Understanding rock wettability is crucial across various fields including hydrology, subsurface fluid storage and extraction, and environmental sciences. In natural subsurface formations like carbonate and shale, mixed wettability is frequently observed, characterized by heterogeneous regions at the pore scale that exhibit both hydrophilic (water-wet) and hydrophobic (oilwet) characteristics. Despite its common occurrence, the impact of mixed wettability on immiscible fluid displacement at the pore scale remains poorly understood, creating a gap in effective modeling and prediction of fluid behavior in porous media. The primary objective of this study was to investigate how mixed wettability affects porescale fluid displacement dynamics, utilizing microfluidic devices designed to replicate rock-like structures with varied wettability properties. Current techniques for achieving mixed wettability within microfluidic devices often struggle with spatial control and resolution, limiting their accuracy. To address this limitation, a novel approach was employed that combined photolithography and molecular vapor deposition of perfluorodecyltrichlorosilane to precisely and selectively modify wettability within specific pore regions, achieving a mixed wettability distribution correlated with pore size for the first time. The experimental setup included five identical micromodels representing distinct wetting conditions, which were initially saturated with air and subsequently flooded by water. By systematically varying the ratio of hydrophilic to hydrophobic areas, we covered a range from fully hydrophilic to fully hydrophobic and intermediate mixed wettability configurations. Comparative displacement experiments revealed that pore-level mixed wettability has a pronounced effect on fluid displacement behavior, influencing the injection time, spatial invasion patterns, and dynamic pressure profiles. Results indicated that both the injection time and dynamic pressure decreased with an increase in the hydrophilic area fraction. Each wettability configuration displayed unique sequences of pore-filling events, emphasizing the critical role of the wettability distribution in influencing displacement dynamics. While mixed wettability exhibited a clear monotonic effect on invasion time and dynamic pressure, saturation behavior was notably nonmonotonic. Interestingly, mixed wettability scenarios with relatively medium to high hydrophilic fractions demonstrated enhanced overall sweep efficiency compared to the hydrophobic case and reduced the bypassed gas phase relative to the hydrophilic case. However, inefficiently distributed mixed wet zones were found to reduce the sweep efficiency. These findings highlight the critical influence of mixed wettability in fluid displacement processes, with significant implications for applications in oil recovery, CO 2 sequestration, and other subsurface energy technologies.
