“…Indeed, there is a scarcity of studies evaluating the exceeding probability of the earthquake-induced displacement of the rail exceeding the allowable standard, in contrast to the extensive research on the vulnerability analysis of other components in the HSR trackbridge system (Jin et al, 2016;Cheng et al, 2020;Wei et al, 2022;Liang, Yan, Zhao, Wang, & Zang, 2022), along with other structures (Xiao, 2013;Zhang, 2014;Liang, Zhu, Zhu, Du, & Wang, 2021;Lv, Su, & Zhou, 2012;Ding, Zi, Ji, Shi, & Ren, 2020). For instance, the vulnerability of the bridge (Cheng et al, 2020;Wei et al, 2022;Liang et al, 2022), ballastless track structure (Wei et al, 2022) and wheels uplift from the rail (Jin et al, 2016) have been extensively investigated.…”