Self-administration of benzodiazepine and cocaine combinations by male and female rhesus monkeys in a choice procedure: role of α1 subunit–containing GABAA receptors

Huskinson, Sally L.; Freeman, Kevin B.; Rowlett, James K.

doi:10.1007/s00213-019-05286-0

Cited by 13 publications

(5 citation statements)

References 33 publications

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“…Thus, "indifference" represented here is the result of averaging from the extremes. We have found that a biased pattern of behavior is typical under identical FR schedules when choice is between identical reinforcers or between different reinforcers (e.g., food and drug) that are subjectively equivalent (Freeman et al, 2014;Huskinson et al, 2016Huskinson et al, , 2017Huskinson et al, , 2019Woolverton, 2003) and is consistent with predictions of the matching law (Baum, 1974;Herrnstein, 1961), because exclusive choice of one option maximizes reinforcement, as does allocating choice among both options. Importantly, the test lever was held constant between Fixed and Variable conditions so that a lever bias had an equal impact on choice across conditions.…”

Section: Resultssupporting

confidence: 65%

“…A total of six female and seven male adult rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) served as subjects. Similar choice studies with rhesus monkeys in our laboratory have shown that 3-6 subjects are typically sufficient to draw meaningful conclusions on a withinsubject basis (e.g., Huskinson et al, 2016Huskinson et al, , 2017Huskinson et al, , 2019. However, previous work has largely been conducted with males, and the goal of the current experiments was to include 3-4 subjects per sex per condition.…”

Section: Subjects and Apparatusmentioning

confidence: 95%

“…For drug conditions, subjects had a catheter surgically implanted using aseptic technique similar to that described previously (Huskinson et al, 2017(Huskinson et al, , 2019. All monkeys were given atropine (0.04 mg/kg, i.m.)…”

Section: Surgerymentioning

confidence: 99%

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Choice between food and cocaine reinforcers under fixed and variable schedules in female and male rhesus monkeys.

Zamarripa¹,

Doyle²,

Freeman³

et al. 2023

Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology

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Illicit drugs like cocaine may be uncertain in terms of the time and effort required to obtain them. Behavior maintained by variable schedules resembles excessive drug-taking compared with fixed schedules. However, no prior research has examined fixed versus variable schedules in drug versus nondrug choice. The present study evaluated cocaine versus food choice under fixed- (FR) and variable-ratio (VR) schedules. The simpler food versus food and cocaine versus cocaine arrangements also were included. Adult female (n = 6) and male (n = 7) rhesus monkeys chose between cocaine (0.01–0.18 mg/kg/injection) and food (4 pellets/delivery), food and food (4 pellets/delivery), or cocaine and cocaine (0.018–0.03 mg/kg/injection) under FR and VR 100 and 200 schedules. In cocaine versus food choice, cocaine’s potency to maintain choice was greatest when available under a VR 100 or 200 schedule and food under an FR schedule and was lowest when cocaine was available under an FR 200 schedule and food was available under a VR 200 schedule. In food versus food choice, males chose food associated with a VR schedule more than food associated with an FR schedule. In cocaine versus cocaine choice, females and males chose cocaine associated with a VR schedule more than cocaine associated with an FR schedule, particularly under VR 200. These findings suggest that uncertainty in terms of time and effort required to obtain cocaine, or perhaps the occasional low-cost access that results from VR schedules, results in greater allocation of behavior toward drug reinforcers at the expense of more certain, nondrug alternatives.

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Section: Resultssupporting

confidence: 65%

Section: Subjects and Apparatusmentioning

confidence: 95%

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Choice between food and cocaine reinforcers under fixed and variable schedules in female and male rhesus monkeys.

Zamarripa¹,

Doyle²,

Freeman³

et al. 2023

Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology

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“…Similarly, the amount of cocaine used as a radioligand in Positron Emission Tomography 29 is minute. In addition to hospital use for medical purposes, ARCOS also reports on the not insignificant volume that is distributed to researchers 30,31 whose use is anticipated to continue. These findings of negligible national licit cocaine use were occurring despite an increase in Poison Center calls for cocaine toxicity—4850 cases, 442 with major/moderate exposures, in 2021 as compared with 5441 cases, 514 major/moderate exposures, called into the National Poison Data System in 2019.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Decline and Pronounced Regional Disparities in Medical Cocaine Usage in the United States

Armbuster

Banas

Feickert

et al. 2021

Journal of Pharmacy Technology

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Background: Cocaine is a stimulant and Schedule II drug used as a local anesthetic and vasoconstrictor. Objective: This descriptive study characterized medical cocaine use in the United States. Methods: Retail drug distribution data from 2002 to 2017 were extracted for each state from the Drug Enforcement Administration, which reports on medical, research, and analytical chemistry use. The percentage of buyers (pharmacies, hospitals, and providers) was obtained. Use per state, corrected for population, was determined. Available cross-sectional data on cocaine use as reported by the Medicare and Medicaid programs for 2013-2017 and electronic medical records were examined. Results: Medical cocaine use decreased by −62.5% from 2002 to 2017. Hospitals accounted for 84.9% and practitioners for 9.9% of cocaine distribution in 2017. The number of pharmacies carrying cocaine dropped by −69.4%. The percentages of hospitals, practitioners, and pharmacies that carried cocaine in 2017 were 38.4%, 2.3%, and 0.3%, respectively. There was a 7-fold difference in 2002 (South Dakota, 76.1 mg/100 persons; Delaware, 10.1 mg/100 persons). Relative to the average state in 2017, those reporting the highest values (Montana, 20.1; North Dakota, 24.1 mg/100 persons) were significantly elevated. Cocaine use within the Medicare and Medicaid programs was negligible. Cocaine use within the Geisinger system was rare from 2002 to 2007 (<4 orders/100 000 patients per year) but increased to 48.7 in 2018. Conclusion and Relevance: If these pharmacoepidemiological patterns continue, licit cocaine may soon become a historical relic. The pharmacology and pharmacotherapeutics education of health care providers may need to be adjusted accordingly.

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“…Similarly, the amount of cocaine employed as a radioligand in Positron Emission Tomography 29 is minute. In addition to hospital use for medical purposes, ARCOS also reports on the not insignificant volume that is distributed to researchers 30,31 whose use is anticipated to continue.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Decline, and Regional Disparities, in Medical Cocaine Usage in the United States

Armbuster

Banas

Feickert

et al. 2020

Preprint

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Purpose: Cocaine is a stimulant with a complex history that is used in otorhinolaryngological surgeries as a local anesthetic and vasodilator. There is extensive regulation in the United States for the storage and disposal of this Schedule II drug, potentially incentivizing health care professionals to avoid use. This descriptive study characterized medical cocaine use in the United States. Methods: Retail drug distribution from 2002-2017 in units of grams of weight was extracted for each state from the Drug Enforcement Administrations Automation of Reports and Consolidated Orders System database, which reports on medical, research, and analytical-chemistry use. The percent of buyers (hospitals, pharmacies, providers) was obtained. Use per state, corrected for population, was determined. Available data on cocaine use, as reported by the Medicare and Medicaid programs for 2013 to 2017, also were examined. Results: Medical cocaine use in the US, measured on the basis of mass, decreased 62.5% from 2002 to 2017. Hospitals accounted for 84.9% and practitioners for 9.9% of cocaine distribution in 2017. The number of pharmacies nationwide carrying cocaine dropped by 69.4% to 206. The percent of all US hospitals, practitioners, and pharmacies that carried cocaine in 2017 was 38.4%, 2.3%, and 0.3%, respectively. There was a seven-fold difference in distribution per state in 2002 (South Dakota = 76.1 mg/100 persons, Delaware = 10.1 mg/100 persons). Similarly, there was a ten-fold regional disparity observed for 2017. Relative to the average state, those reporting the highest values (Montana = 20.1 and North Dakota = 24.1 mg/100 persons), were significantly elevated. Cocaine use within the Medicare and Medicaid programs was negligible. Conclusion: Medical cocaine use across the United States exhibited a pronounced decline over a fifteen-year period. If this pattern continues, licit cocaine will soon become an obscure pharmacological relic of interest only to analytical chemists and medical historians.

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Self-administration of benzodiazepine and cocaine combinations by male and female rhesus monkeys in a choice procedure: role of α1 subunit–containing GABAA receptors

Cited by 13 publications

References 33 publications

Choice between food and cocaine reinforcers under fixed and variable schedules in female and male rhesus monkeys.

Choice between food and cocaine reinforcers under fixed and variable schedules in female and male rhesus monkeys.

Decline and Pronounced Regional Disparities in Medical Cocaine Usage in the United States

Decline, and Regional Disparities, in Medical Cocaine Usage in the United States

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