Self-organization of organoids from endoderm-derived cells

Abstract

Organoids constitute biological systems which are used to model organ development, homeostasis, regeneration, and disease in vitro and hold promise for use in therapy. Reflecting in vivo development, organoids form from tissue cells or pluripotent stem cells. Cues provided from the media and individual cells promote self-organization of these uniform starting cells into a structure, with emergent differentiated cells, morphology, and often functionality that resemble the tissue of origin. Therefore, organoids provide a complement to two-dimensional in vitro culture and in vivo animal models of development, providing the experimental control and flexibility of in vitro methods with the three-dimensional context of in vivo models, with fewer ethical restraints than human or animal work. However, using organoids, we are only just beginning to understand on the cellular level how the external conditions and signaling between individual cells promote the emergence of cells and structures. In this review, we focus specifically on organoids derived from endodermal tissues: the starting conditions of the cells, signaling mechanisms, and external media that allow the emergence of higher order self-organization.

Advancement of Organoid Technology in Regenerative Medicine

“…They were able to obtain gastric organoids from the intestinal one with retinoic acid admission [ 95 , 102 ]. However, in this pathway to make the gastric organoid the desired one, epidermal growth factor (EGF) and Matrigel were also needed [ 102 , 103 ]. With all these measures, the end of the stomach, which is the antrum and is most similar to the intestinal tissue, was obtained [ 95 , 103 ].…”

“…However, in this pathway to make the gastric organoid the desired one, epidermal growth factor (EGF) and Matrigel were also needed [ 102 , 103 ]. With all these measures, the end of the stomach, which is the antrum and is most similar to the intestinal tissue, was obtained [ 95 , 103 ]. The WNT signaling pathway is needed to form the proximal part of the stomach, which includes the corpus with parietal cells for acid production [ 95 , 102 , 103 ].…”

“…With all these measures, the end of the stomach, which is the antrum and is most similar to the intestinal tissue, was obtained [ 95 , 103 ]. The WNT signaling pathway is needed to form the proximal part of the stomach, which includes the corpus with parietal cells for acid production [ 95 , 102 , 103 ]. Also, the human intestinal organoids (HIO) made from iPSCs can do things like contract the intestines like the nervous system of the intestines [ 104 , 105 ].…”

“…These factors include Activin A, Bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4), and fibroblast growth factor 9 (FGF9) [ 95 , 106 , 107 ]. One subclass of PSC, including ESCs, can produce cerebellum, optic cup, and hippocampal-like organoids in different environmental conditions, and all of these organoids originate in ectodermal tissue [ 103 ]. Also, ESC differentiation can yield organoids that consist of neuroepithelial tissue that mimic cortical features [ 103 ].…”

Organoids: ready for the revolution?

“…Organoids can be derived either directly from tissue-resident adult stem cells and developmental progenitors or from embryonic and induced pluripotent stem cells via stepwise in vitro differentiation. Dr. Anne Grapin-Botton and Dr. Jason Spence, together with their respective colleagues, introduce pluripotent stem cell-derived endodermal organoids and focus on organoid model systems capable of reconstituting distinct aspects of human endodermal organ formation [2,3]. Dr. Ryuji Morizane and his colleagues give an overview on the latest developments on kidney organoids, while Dr. In-Hyun Park and colleagues focus on human brain organoid technology [4,5].…”