Self-reported inner speech illuminates the frequency and content of self-as-subject and self-as-object experiences.

Abstract

Although several attempts have been made to explain the nature of self-as-subject and self-as-object experiences, the examination of specific manifestations of these experiences in everyday life remains understudied. In this brief article, I used preexisting data pertaining to self-reported inner speech as a window into what self-as-subject and self-as-object experiences look like in terms of their typical content and frequency. Selfas-subject refers to the self immersed in current perception of the world accompanied by minimal self-awareness, whereas self-as-object designates a state of self taking itself as the object of its own attention (James, 1890). One observation is that self-reported inner speech instances of self-as-subject experiences were much more frequent than self-asobject experiences, possibly because it is more advantageous to be immersed in experience while engaged in activities as opposed to self-reflecting about these activities; another possibility is that our participants were more immersed in their experience (self-as-subject) when answering the prompts "I talk to myself about, because, and when," which may not encourage reporting self-as-object experiences. A second observation is that self-experiences as subject and object consisted in several everyday activities and self-reflective practices typical of university students, such as one's emotions, current self, studying, leisure, remembering, problem solving, and planning. I conclude that recoding self-reported inner speech instances with reference to self-as-subject and self-as-object experiences represents a fruitful research avenue but note that such data should be gathered in nonstudent populations.

Cleaner fish recognize self in a mirror via self-face recognition like humans

“…Our results provide clear evidence suggesting that these fish can have a mental image of their face after exposure to a mirror and can distinguish their face from the faces of other individuals. In particular, our finding that cleaner fish react to a marked self-photograph demonstrates compelling evidence that cleaner fish achieve self-recognition in images via a mental image of the self rather than a kinesthetic visual-matching process ( 1 , 3 , 4 , 9 , 10 , 21 ). The current study represents the explicit experimental test of the mechanisms underlying MSR in nonhuman animals ( 4 , 5 , 34 ).…”

“…A potentially simpler alternative explanation for MSR is the kinesthetic visual-matching model, which hypothesizes that animals visually match body movements with mirror reflections (considered a public self-awareness; refs. 3 and 4 ). Explicit tests of these two potential underlying mechanisms are lacking ( 3 , 4 , 9 , 10 , 14 ), including whether they are mutually exclusive or interact.…”

“… 3 and 4 ). Explicit tests of these two potential underlying mechanisms are lacking ( 3 , 4 , 9 , 10 , 14 ), including whether they are mutually exclusive or interact. The taxa capable of MSR is growing and becoming more diverse, including great apes, Asian elephants, dolphins, horses, magpies, and cleaner fish (e.g., refs.…”

“…Humans have a mental image of their own face and recognize their mirror reflection via self-face recognition ( 1 ). Mental images constitute mental states, which comprise a diverse class including beliefs, emotions, desires and intentions, with the latter linked to a private self-awareness ( 1 – 4 ). Demonstrating that nonhuman animals have private self-awareness would require evidence of connected and interacting mental states.…”

“…Mirror self-recognition in nonhuman animals was first observed in chimpanzees ( 5 , 6 ). Gallup hypothesized that animals with MSR capacity have a mentalistic view, i.e., mental states or private self-awareness ( 1 , 5 , 6 , 8 ), yet this remains largely untested ( 3 , 4 , 9 – 13 ). A potentially simpler alternative explanation for MSR is the kinesthetic visual-matching model, which hypothesizes that animals visually match body movements with mirror reflections (considered a public self-awareness; refs.…”