Self-Reported Long COVID in the General Population: Sociodemographic and Health Correlates in a Cross-National Sample

Abstract

We aimed to gain knowledge of possible sociodemographic predictors of long COVID and whether long COVID was associated with health outcomes almost two years after the pandemic outbreak. There were 1649 adults who participated in the study by completing a cross-sectional online survey disseminated openly in Norway, the UK, the USA, and Australia between November 2021 and January 2022. Participants were defined as having long COVID based on self-reports that they had been infected by COVID-19 and were experiencing long-lasting COVID symptoms. Logistic regression analyses were used to examine possible sociodemographic predictors, and multivariate analysis of variance was used to examine whether long COVID status was associated with health outcomes. None of the sociodemographic variables was significantly associated with reporting long COVID. Having long COVID was associated with higher levels of psychological distress, fatigue, and perceived stress. The effect of long COVID on health outcomes was greater among men than among women. In conclusion, long COVID appeared across sociodemographic groups. People with long COVID reported worsened health outcomes compared to those who had had COVID-19 but without long-term symptoms. Men experiencing long COVID appear to be particularly vulnerable to experiencing poorer health outcomes; health services may pay extra attention to potentially unnoticed needs for support among men experiencing long COVID.

Long COVID at Different Altitudes: A Countrywide Epidemiological Analysis

“…et al where a 51% prevalence of “post COVID syndrome” in self-reported university students who experienced mild to moderate infection (not hospitalized) was reported [ 25 ], as well as a self-reported prevalence of 60% among Spanish participants with a history of hospitalization [ 26 ]. On the other hand, a self-reported investigation of 310 individuals from several countries (Norway, United Kingdom, United States and Australia) showed a lower prevalence (28.7%) of long-COVID sequalae when compared to our results [ 27 ], nevertheless, in a systematic review a prevalence of 43% was estimated at a global level [ 28 ].…”

“…Regarding sex, it was evidenced that women presented more Long-COVID symptoms (feeling of anxiety, brittle hair, difficulty concentrating, headache, insomnia, nausea, neuritis, hair loss, memory defects, muscle loss, dry skin, easy crying, and brittle nails) when compared to men, findings similar to those presented by Sudre et al and Whitaker et al in self-report studies in the population of the United Kingdom [ 33 , 34 ], Mexico [ 35 ] and Spain [ 26 ]. While these differences may be because women are more likely to participate in this type of investigations and are more aware of their health, only one study has shown that men are more likely to develop long-COVID than women [ 27 , 36 ].…”

Long COVID at Low and High Altitude: A Countrywide Epidemiological Analysis of Self-Reported Long-Term Persisting Symptoms in Ecuador

“…Regarding sex, it was evidenced that women presented more post-acute symptoms (feeling of anxiety, brittle hair, difficulty concentrating, headache, insomnia, nausea, neuritis, hair loss, memory defects, muscle loss, dry skin, easy crying, and brittle nails) when compared to men, findings similar to those presented by Sudre et al and Whitaker et al in self-report studies in the population of the United Kingdom [32,33], Mexico [34] and Spain [25]. While these differences may be because women are more likely to participate in this type of investigations and are more aware of their health, only one study has shown that men are more likely to develop long-covid than women [26,35].…”

“…et al where a 51% prevalence of "post COVID syndrome" in self-reported university students who experienced mild to moderate infection (not hospitalized) was reported [24], as well as a self-reported prevalence of 60% among Spanish participants with a history of hospitalization [25]. On the other hand, a self-reported investigation of 310 individuals from several countries (Norway, United Kingdom, United States and Australia) showed a lower prevalence (28.7%) of long-COVID sequalae when compared to our results [26], nevertheless, in a systematic review a prevalence of 43% was estimated at a global level [27].…”

“…A Chi-Square test for the independence of variables was chosen to search for a relationship between variables such as gender, age, comorbidities, history of COVID-19, altitude exposure, smoking habits, vaccination status and number of vaccines given. To analyze the scores of the EQ-5D-3l, the index value was calculated using Ecuador's specific scores (26). The method for calculating the p-value was based on the frequentist approach to the test.…”