3D printing is one of the effective scaffold fabrication
techniques
that emerged in the 21st century that has the potential to revolutionize
the field of tissue engineering. The solid scaffolds developed by
3D printing are still one of the most sought-after approaches for
developing hard-tissue regeneration and repair. However, applications
of these solid scaffolds get limited due to their poor surface and
bulk properties, which play a significant role in tissue integration,
loadbearing, antimicrobial/antifouling properties, and others. As
a result, several efforts have been directed to modify the surface
and bulk of these solid scaffolds. These modifications have significantly
improved the adoption of 3D-printed solid scaffolds and devices in
the healthcare industry. Nevertheless, the in vivo implant applications
of these 3D-printed solid scaffolds/devices are still under development.
They require attention in terms of their surface/bulk properties,
which dictate their functionality. Therefore, in the current review,
we have discussed different 3D-printing parameters that facilitate
the fabrication of solid scaffolds/devices with different properties.
Further, changes in the bulk properties through material and microstructure
modification are also being discussed. After that, we deliberated
on the techniques that modify the surfaces through chemical and material
modifications. The computational approaches for the bulk modification
of these 3D-printed materials are also mentioned, focusing on tissue
engineering. We have also briefly discussed the application of these
solid scaffolds/devices in tissue engineering. Eventually, the review
is concluded with an analysis of the choice of surface/bulk modification
based on the intended application in tissue engineering.