Seroprevalence and Risk Factors for Coxiella burnetii (Q Fever) Seropositivity in Dairy Goat Farmers' Households in The Netherlands, 2009–2010

Abstract

Community Q fever epidemics occurred in the Netherlands in 2007–2009, with dairy goat and dairy sheep farms as the implicated source. The aim of the study was to determine the seroprevalence and risk factors for seropositivity in dairy goat farmers and their household members living or working on these farms. Sera of 268 people living or working on 111 dairy goat farms were tested for Coxiella burnetii IgG and IgM antibodies using immunofluorescence assay. Seroprevalences in farmers, spouses and children (12–17 years) were 73.5%, 66.7%, and 57.1%, respectively. Risk factors for seropositivity were: performing three or more daily goat-related tasks, farm location in the two southern provinces of the country, proximity to bulk milk-positive farms, distance from the nearest stable to residence of 10 meters or less, presence of cats and multiple goat breeds in the stable, covering stable air spaces and staff not wearing farm boots. Goat farmers have a high risk to acquire this occupational infection. Clinicians should consider Q fever in this population presenting with compatible symptoms to allow timely diagnosis and treatment to prevent severe sequelae. Based on the risk factors identified, strengthening general biosecurity measures is recommended such as consistently wearing boots and protective clothing by farm staff to avoid indirect transmission and avoiding access of companion animals in the goat stable. Furthermore, it provides an evidence base for continuation of the current vaccination policy for small ruminants, preventing spread from contaminated farms to other farms in the vicinity. Finally, vaccination of seronegative farmers and household members could be considered.

Coxiella burnetii seroprevalence and risk factors on commercial sheep farms in The Netherlands

“…This supports their relatively limited role in the transmission of C. burnetii to the community in their vicinity during the Q fever epidemic in The Netherlands. It might also partially explain the relatively lower observed seroprevalence among the non-dairy sheep farm households compared to dairy sheep farm households (De Lange and others 2013) and dairy goat farm households (Schimmer and others 2012). …”

Seroprevalence and Factors Associated with Coxiella burnetii Infection in Small Ruminants in Baringo County, Kenya

“…Infection is primarily through inhalation of aerosolized contaminated materials from infected livestock, especially parturient animals and their products or their contaminated environment which makes the disease an occupational zoonosis (Battelli et al, 2006;Porter et al, 2011;Schimmer et al, 2012;Van den Brom et al, 2013b). However, Q fever outbreaks in urban areas in people with no history of contact with livestock or livestock products have occurred (Amitai et al, 2010), and exposure attributed to C. burnetii resistant and persistent nature to harsh environmental conditions for months to years (Gurtler et al, 2014).…”

Q Fever Serological Survey and Associated Risk Factors in Veterinarians, Southern Belgium, 2013

“…Ruminants are considered the primary source of infection for humans (Maurin and Raoult, ), and inhalation of contaminated aerosols represents the main route of transmission (Maurin and Raoult, ; Schimmer et al., ). Q fever is an occupational disease, with livestock farmers, veterinarians and abattoir workers being the most at risk of contact with infected animal products (CDC, ; Whitney et al., ; Schimmer et al., , ; Van den Brom et al., ). However, the Q fever epidemic that occurred in the Netherlands between 2007 and 2010 was characterized by an unexpectedly high exposure of the general population, living in the surroundings of infected herds (Dijkstra et al., ).…”