Serum concentration of zinc, copper, iron, and its associated factors among pregnant women of small-scale farming in western Ethiopia

Abstract

Micro-nutrients are required in small amounts to maintain growth and cell functioning to complete the life cycle through reproductions. However, pregnant women in developing countries like Ethiopia are vulnerable to multiple micro-nutrient deficiencies. Therefore, this study aimed at assessing the serum level of metals and associated factors like dietary diversity, and health-related problems in pregnant women among small-scale farming in Kellem Wellega, western Ethiopia. A cross-sectional laboratory-based study was conducted from June to August 2021 on 417 pregnant women attending antenatal care at rural healthcare facilities. Data was collected by using per-tested structured questionnaires via face-to-face interviews. The data analysis was conducted using SPSS version 24.0, and multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to determine the association between predictor and outcome variables. A statistically significant was considered at p value < 0.05 for all the analyses. Our study findings showed that 62.1, 80.9, and 71.9% of the participants were deficient in iron, zinc, and copper micro-nutrient levels, respectively. Pregnant women who could not have formal education were 3.24 (AOR = 3.24, 95% CI 1.33–7.91) and 3.98 (AOR = 3.98, 95% CI 1.2–13.15) times more likely to show zinc and copper deficiency than those who attended secondary school and above, respectively. Furthermore, pregnant women involved only in farming activities were 0.57 (AOR = 0.57, 95% CI 0.36–0.91) and 4.33 (AOR = 5.72, 95% CI 2.34–13.97) times more likely to be exposed to iron and zinc deficiency than those who were engaged in other activities. This study revealed that pregnant women with low income were 6.36 times more likely to be exposed to zinc micro-nutrient deficiencies than those with high-income participants (AOR = 6.36, 95% CI 1.47–27.61). Additionally, those participants who ate a varied diet between 1 and 4 items per day were 2.26 (AOR = 2.26, 95% CI 1.43–3.59) and 2.77 (AOR = 2.77, 95% CI 1.6–4.61) times more likely to suffer zinc and copper micro-nutrient insufficiency than those who consumed 5–10 items per day. Finally, pregnant women who developed diarrhea in the past three months were 1.82 (AOR = 2.77, 95% CI 1.14–2.92) and 2.52 (AOR = 2.52, 95% CI 1.3–4.91) times more likely to be exposed to iron and copper deficiency than those who never show the symptoms, respectively. This study identified low concentrations of zinc, iron, and copper in the blood serum of pregnant women of small-scale farmers.

Examining the Effect of Agrochemicals on Soil Microbiological Activity, Micronutrient Availability, and Uptake by Maize (Zea mays L.) Plants

“…The ash content (lowest in the compost treatment) generally fell outside the range reported by several other studies, including [71] (1.1-2.95%), [72] (3.76-4.39%), and [67] (91.09-5.46%). The yield of ash content is often correlated with the presence of essential macro and micronutrients in food samples, as highlighted by [73], and, thus, has significant implications for human health and well-being [10,74]. Furthermore, the inorganic fertilizer treatment may have led to higher ash content in maize due to the specific micronutrients provided, such as iron, zinc, copper, and manganese that are essential for various physiological processes in plants, including enzyme activation and metabolism, which can affect the mineral composition of maize grains.…”

“…Practices such as increased cropping intensity, use of high-yielding varieties, and extensive fertilizer and pesticide application are expected to exacerbate these problems [6,8]. Inadequate food crop concentration and, thus, human intake of these elements can result in nutritional deficiency, anemia, compromised immune function, skin diseases, delayed child development, and intelligence-related issues [9][10][11]. This issue poses a growing threat to food and nutrition security in developing countries [12,13].…”

“…Additionally, prolonged use of inorganic fertilizers and excessive pesticide application exacerbate these challenges [28]. The micronutrient deficiency in the soil system directly impacts plant uptake and, indirectly, human health [6,10]. Prolonged continuous cropping modifies soil physicochemical and biological characteristics and diminishes micronutrient availability, exacerbating soil fertility challenges in Ethiopia [27].…”

Dietary micronutrients intake and its effect on haemoglobin levels of pregnant women for clinic visit in the Mount Cameroon health area: a cross-sectional study

“…Globally, more than 2 billion people suffer from micronutrient deficiencies, with the main being iron, zinc, iodine, vitamins A and B ( 4 , 5 ). During pregnancy, these deficiencies which results from; lack of consumption of nutrient-dense food groups, poor understanding of the importance of a diverse diet and inefficient utilisation of available micronutrients ( 6 , 7 ) can lead to a myriad of adverse maternal and perinatal outcomes including; anaemia, increased susceptibility to infectious diseases, low birth weight, preterm birth, increased risk of maternal and neonatal mortality as well as cognitive deficit in the baby later in life ( 2 , 8 ).…”

Examining the Effect of Agrochemicals on Soil Microbiological Activity, Micronutrient Availability, and Uptake by Maize (Zea mays L) Plants

“…Practices such as increased cropping intensity, use of high-yielding varieties, and extensive fertilizer and pesticide application are expected to exacerbate these problems [1,3,4]. Inadequate food crop concentration and thus human intake of these elements can result in nutritional deficiency, anemia, compromised immune function, skin diseases, delayed child development, and intelligence-related issues [5][6][7]. This issue poses a growing threat to food and nutrition security in developing countries [8,9] Furthermore, decreased pH [10] and use of pesticides can influence the availability of soil micronutrients (Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn) and microbial populations [11,12].…”