Sex Differences in Self-Construal and in Depressive Symptoms: Predictors of Cross-National Variation

Abstract

<jats:p> Sex differences in aspects of independent versus interdependent self-construal and depressive symptoms were surveyed among 5,320 students from 24 nations. Men were found to perceive themselves as more self-contained whereas women perceived themselves as more connected to others. No significant sex differences were found on two further dimensions of self-construal, or on a measure of depressive symptoms. Multilevel modeling was used to test the ability of a series of predictors derived from a social identity perspective and from evolutionary theory to moderate sex differences. Contrary to most prior studies of personality, sex differences in self-construal were larger in samples from nations scoring lower on the Gender Gap Index, and the Human Development Index. Sex differences were also greater in nations with higher pathogen prevalence, higher self-reported religiosity, and in nations with high reported avoidance of settings with strong norms. The findings are discussed in terms of the interrelatedness of self-construals and the cultural contexts in which they are elicited and the distinctiveness of student samples. </jats:p>

Is an Emphasis on Dignity, Honor and Face more an Attribute of Individuals or of Cultural Groups?

“…Response scales for these items were the same as those used for the self-construal items. Smith et al (2020) confirmed the intended factor structure of these items through multilevel confirmatory factor analysis, using MPlus Version 8 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998. They specified two covarying factors at both participant and sample levels, one representing a factor indicated by the six discomfort items, and one indicated by the three avoidance items.…”

“…Smith et al (2020) report analyses of this data. Following Kashima et al (1995), individual variations in response style were first discounted through within-subject standardization.…”

“…Scales measured: Self-Containment versus Connection to Others ("If a close friend or family member is sad, you feel the sadness as if it were your own"); Self-Expression versus Harmony ("You prefer to preserve harmony in your relationships, even if this means not expressing your true feelings"); and Consistency across Situations versus Variability ("You behave in the same way even when you are with different people"). Smith et al (2020) report analyses of this data. Following Kashima et al (1995), individual variations in response style were first discounted through within-subject standardization.…”

“…Thus, there is evidence for a satisfactory structure for the three self-construal scales. Fuller detail of these analyses is provided by Smith et al (2020).…”

“…Responses were recorded on 7-point Likert scales, with anchors from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Lun et al (2020) report analyses of these data. After within-sample standardization, factor analysis of the 10 face items for the total sample yielded a two-factor solution with oblimin rotation explaining 56.5 percent of variance.…”