Sex-Specific Associations Between Trauma Exposure, Pubertal Timing, and Anxiety in Black Children

Abstract

Recent research has linked early life stress (ELS), such as trauma exposure, with early puberty. Early puberty has also been identified as a risk factor for poor mental health outcomes. However, these two paths have primarily been examined independently. In addition, more studies have examined these associations in girls than boys, and findings for boys remain mixed. We hypothesized that early puberty (relative to peers) would be positively associated with both prior trauma exposure and concurrent anxiety symptoms. We anticipated that these associations might differ by sex. We tested these hypotheses within a cross-sectional sample of 133 8- to 13-year-old Black girls and boys with trauma exposure. The association between trauma and accelerated pubertal timing was sex-specific: it was positive for girls and negative for boys. We stratified subsequent analyses by sex. Regression analyses indicated that early puberty relative to peers predicted more anxiety symptoms for girls but not boys, after accounting for trauma exposure. A statistical mediation analysis indicated that, for girls, the positive association between trauma exposure and anxiety was partially mediated by pubertal timing. These results indicate that trauma exposure may have sex-specific effects on pubertal timing and anxiety risk in Black children. We also found that, for girls, trauma may increase risk for adverse outcomes by prompting earlier puberty, which is linked to higher anxiety. These findings are consistent with cascading effects of trauma across development, and highlight the need for further study of sex-specific mechanisms.

Pubertal timing as an indicator of early life stress in Roman Italy and Roman Gaul

“…In experimental studies of rats and longitudinal studies of humans, some research has shown that programming of the HPA axis in response to ELS can be sex specific (e.g., Brydges et al, 2020; Cowan & Richardson, 2018; Elgar et al, 2017). In humans, some studies demonstrate that females exhibit increased HPA axis reactivity compared to males, suggesting that the female HPA axis may be more vulnerable to physical and psychological stressors in the pre‐pubertal period (Carpenter et al, 2017; Stenson et al, 2021). This implies that female bodies may be a more sensitive marker of developmental stress than males, despite experiencing the same exposure to ELS.…”

“…Clinical studies examining the relationship between ELS and pubertal timing in boys have produced mixed results with some indicating that greater ELS results in slower timing and others indicating faster pubertal tempo in tandem with early onset (see Stenson et al, 2021 for discussion). Joos et al (2018) suggest that much of this confusion is due to a lack of male-specific research in regards to ELS and pubertal timing, and Roman literary sources often depict women as inferior to men, suggesting that their needs and contributions were second to men within their families and households (Garnsey, 1999).…”

Blood levels of T-Cell Receptor Excision Circles (TRECs) provide an index of exposure to traumatic stress in mice and humans

“…Because biological sex can influence responses to stress [ 79 , 80 ], we also stratified our analyses across women ( N = 176) and men ( N = 122) (Supplemental Tables II and III ). For both sexes, TREC dCT was normally distributed and TREC levels negatively correlated with age (Supplemental Figs.…”

Spencer’s phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST): Charting its origin and impact.

“…For example, the relation between pubertal indicators (e.g., pubertal timing, hair growth), neighborhood context and mental health varies among African American boys compared to Caribbean Black boys (Seaton & Carter, 2021), and Black girls (Seaton & Carter, 2018). Stenson et al (2021) found early life trauma positively linked with accelerated pubertal timing among Black girls but not Black boys. The the application of PVEST expanded empirical approaches to understanding social and cultural components of pubertal development.…”