Sex-specific differences in fetal and infant growth patterns: a prospective population-based cohort study

Abstract

BackgroundThe objective of this study was to assess whether sex-specific differences in fetal and infant growth exist.MethodsThis study was embedded in the Generation R Study, a population-based prospective birth cohort. In total, 8556 live singleton births were included. Fetal growth was assessed by ultrasound. During the first trimester, crown-rump-length (CRL) was measured. In the second and third trimester of pregnancy head circumference (HC), abdominal circumference (AC) and femur length (FL) were assessed. Information on infant growth during the first 2 years of life was obtained from Community Health Centers and included HC, body weight and length.ResultsIn the first trimester, male CRL was larger than female CRL (0.12 SD [95% CI 0.03,0.22]). From the second trimester onwards, HC and AC were larger in males than in females (0.30 SD [95% CI 0.26,0.34] and 0.09 SD [95% CI 0.05,0.014], respectively). However, FL in males was smaller compared to female fetuses (0.21 SD [95% CI 0.17,0.26]). Repeated measurement analyses showed a different prenatal as well as postnatal HC growth pattern between males and females. A different pattern in body weight was observed with a higher body weight in males until the age of 12 months where after females have a higher body weight.ConclusionsSex affects both fetal as well as infant growth. Besides body size, also body proportions differ between males and females with different growth patterns. This sexual dimorphism might arise from differences in fetal programming with sex specific health differences as a consequence in later life.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13293-016-0119-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Sex‐specific associations of insulin‐like peptides in cord blood with size at birth

“…We hypothesized that the sex‐specific differences in growth promoting effects of the foetal growth factors contribute to the different growth strategies of males and females, resulting in sex differences in birthweight and length at birth. Such differences have been shown in earlier studies …”

“…22,23 In our study, we found consistent significant positive associations of IGF2 with growth outcomes in males, and similar associations in females, although only significant for birthweight. IGF2 expression levels in placental tissue measured early in pregnancy (at weeks [11][12][13] are associated with birthweight, especially with small for gestational age neonates. 24 Associations between IGF2 and growth outcomes continue to exist at least until the age of 5 years, 25 The positive associations of cord blood IGF-1 and C-peptide with birthweight, length and placenta weight found here is in line with literature in general.…”

“…Such differences have been shown in earlier studies. 12,13 Babies with either a very low or high birthweight have a different body composition at birth 14,15 and worse health outcomes in later life. 16,17 In these extreme groups, associations of growth parameters with cord blood hormones might be different.…”

Maternal plasma kisspeptin‐10 level in preeclamptic pregnant women and its relation in changing their reproductive hormones

“…In this study, we found that there were no differences in GA between PE and control groups (Table ). However, the combination of BPD, head circumference, abdominal circumference, and FL provides a better estimation of GA than CRL during 2nd and 3rd trimesters of gestation …”

Percentile charts of twin birthweight

“…The studied infants included 709 girls and 767 boys born between weeks 25 and 39 of gestation. Due to the dimorphic differences that are already present from the first trimester of pregnancy onwards and continue throughout pregnancy, calculations have been performed separately for girls and for boys.…”