Sex trafficking and sexual exploitation in settings affected by armed conflicts in Africa, Asia and the Middle East: systematic review

Abstract

BackgroundSex trafficking and sexual exploitation has been widely reported, especially in conflict-affected settings, which appear to increase women’s and children’s vulnerabilities to these extreme abuses.MethodsWe conducted a systematic search of ten databases and extensive grey literature to gather evidence of sex trafficking and sexual exploitation in conflict-affected settings. International definitions of “sexual exploitation” and “sex trafficking” set the indicator parameters. We focused on sexual exploitation in forms of early or forced marriage, forced combatant sexual exploitation and sexual slavery. We extracted prevalence measures, health outcomes and sexual exploitation terminology definitions. The review adhered to PRISMA guidelines and includes quality appraisal.ResultsThe search identified 29 eligible papers with evidence of sex trafficking and sexual exploitation in armed conflict settings in twelve countries in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. The evidence was limited and not generalizable, due to few prevalence estimates and inconsistent definitions of “sexual exploitation”. The prevalence estimates available indicate that females were more likely than males to be victims of sexual exploitation in conflict settings. In some settings, as many as one in four forced marriages took place before the girls reached 18 years old. Findings suggest that the vast majority of former female combatants were sexually exploited during the conflict. These studies provided various indicators of sexual exploitation compatible to the United Nation’s definition of sex trafficking, but only 2 studies identified the exploitation as trafficking. None of the studies solely aimed to measure the prevalence of sex trafficking or sexual exploitation. Similar descriptions of types of sexual exploitation and trafficking were found, but the inconsistent terminology or measurements inhibited a meta-analysis.ConclusionsFindings indicate there are various forms of human trafficking and sexual exploitation in conflict-affected settings, primarily occurring as early or forced marriage, forced combatant sexual exploitation, and sexual slavery. The studies highlight the extraordinary vulnerability of women and girls to these extreme abuses. Simultaneously, this review suggests the need to clarify terminology around sex trafficking in conflict to foster a more cohesive future evidence-base, and in particular, robust prevalence figures from conflict-affected and displaced populations.

Forced Sex and Early Marriage: Understanding the Linkages and Norms in a Humanitarian Setting

“…In humanitarian settings, the increased risks of sexual and other types of violence against girls may make early marriage more likely for girls in conflict-affected families (McAlpine, Hossain, & Zimmerman, 2016). Furthermore, when rape occurs before marriage, the associated stigma and possible occurrence of pregnancy outside of marriage become additional push factors that lead to early marriage (Mulumeoderhwa, 2016; Women’s Refugee Commission, 2016).…”

Mental Health Workers’ Perceptions of Risk Factors for Human Trafficking in Nairobi, Kenya: A Preliminary Qualitative Investigation

“…For instance, marriage represents a valuable institution that is deeply ingrained in African cultural values (Awoniyi, 2015). Quantitative studies have linked sexual exploitation and sex trafficking with forced marriages in African countries (McAlpine, Hossain, & Zimmerman, 2016;Msuya, 2017). In addition, some rural African communities believe engaging in sexual intercourse with a virgin can prevent or even cure human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), and other sexually transmitted diseases (Salah, 2001;Swart, 2012).…”

Wars and Conflicts in Sub-Saharan Africa/The Middle East and North Africa (MENA): A Gender-relational Perspective

“…However, it is also specific to place and time, and to various stages of conflicts in Africa and the MENA region. Gender-based violence can be defined as physical, sexual, and psychological violence committed against women or men as a result of their gender (McAlpine, Hossain & Zimmerman, 2016). Armed conflicts tend to aggravate sexual abuse, and in various conflict zones rape has been extensively used as a weapon of war.…”