Sexual orientation of human offspring may be altered by severe maternal stress during pregnancy

Ellis, Lee M.; Peckham, William Bs; Ames, Melissa; Burke, Donald M.

doi:10.1080/00224498809551449

Cited by 73 publications

(18 citation statements)

References 7 publications

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“…Other studies also have generally found no association between retrospective reports of stress during pregnancy and sexual orientation of male offspring [5;41;145]. Although one study [41] reported a marginally significant difference between homosexual and heterosexual men in retrospective reports of maternal stress during the second trimester of pregnancy, numerous other comparisons were not significant, raising the possibility of a spurious effect. One study of prenatal stress and sexual orientation looked at female offspring, and found that recollections of maternal stress during pregnancy were associated with reduced heterosexual orientation [5].…”

Section: Prenatal Stress and Sexual Orientationmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…A subsequent study, by different authors, of men conceived during the same war did not find increased homosexuality, however [123]. Other studies also have generally found no association between retrospective reports of stress during pregnancy and sexual orientation of male offspring [5;41;145]. Although one study [41] reported a marginally significant difference between homosexual and heterosexual men in retrospective reports of maternal stress during the second trimester of pregnancy, numerous other comparisons were not significant, raising the possibility of a spurious effect.…”

Section: Prenatal Stress and Sexual Orientationmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Prenatal endocrine influences on sexual orientation and on sexually differentiated childhood behavior

Hines

2011

Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology

190

112

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Both sexual orientation and sex-typical childhood behaviors, such as toy, playmate and activity preferences, show substantial sex differences, as well as substantial variability within each sex. In other species, behaviors that show sex differences are typically influenced by exposure to gonadal steroids, particularly testosterone and its metabolites, during early development (prenatally or neonatally). This article reviews the evidence regarding prenatal influences of gonadal steroids on human sexual orientation, as well as sex-typed childhood behaviors that predict subsequent sexual orientation. The evidence supports a role for prenatal testosterone exposure in the development of sex-typed interests in childhood, as well as in sexual orientation in later life, at least for some individuals. It appears, however, that other factors, in addition to hormones, play an important role in determining sexual orientation. These factors have not been well-characterized, but possibilities include direct genetic effects, and effects of maternal factors during pregnancy. Although a role for hormones during early development has been established, it also appears that there may be multiple pathways to a given sexual orientation outcome and some of these pathways may not involve hormones.

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Section: Prenatal Stress and Sexual Orientationmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Prenatal Stress and Sexual Orientationmentioning

confidence: 99%

Prenatal endocrine influences on sexual orientation and on sexually differentiated childhood behavior

Hines

2011

Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology

190

112

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“…Prenatal exposure to nicotine, amphetamines, or thyroid-gland hormones increases the chances of giving birth to lesbian daughters (117,118). A stressed pregnant woman has a greater chance of giving birth to a homosexual son (117,119) or a lesbian daughter (120) (Table II). Although it has often been postulated that postnatal development is also important for the direction of sexual orientation, there is no solid proof for this.…”

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confidence: 99%

Sexual differentiation of the human brain in relation to gender identity and sexual orientation

Savić

Garcı́a-Falgueras

Swaab

2010

Progress in Brain Research

125

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SummaryDuring the intrauterine period the fetal brain develops in the male direction through a direct action of testosterone on the developing nerve cells, or in the female direction through the absence of this hormone surge. In this way, our gender identity (the conviction of belonging to the male or female gender) and sexual orientation are programmed into our brain structures when we are still in the womb. However, since sexual differentiation of the genitals takes place in the first two months of pregnancy and sexual differentiation of the brain starts in the second half of pregnancy, these two processes can be influenced independently, which may result in transsexuality. This also means that in the event of ambiguous sex at birth, the degree of masculinization of the genitals may not reflect the degree of masculinization of the brain. There is no proof that social environment after birth has an effect on gender identity or sexual orientation.KEY WORDS: gender identity, homosexuality, human brain, sexual orientation, sexual differentiation, transsexuality. Sexual organization and activation of the human brainThe process of sexual differentiation of the brain brings about permanent changes in brain structures and functions via interactions of the developing neurons with the environment, understood in its widest sense. The environment of a developing neuron is formed by the surrounding nerve cells and the child's circulating hormones, as well as the hormones, nutrients, medication and other chemical substances from the mother and the environment that enter the fetal circulation via the placenta. All these factors may have a lasting effect on the sexual differentiation of the brain. The testicles and ovaries develop in the sixth week of pregnancy. This occurs under the influence of a cascade of genes, starting with the sex-determining gene on the Y chromosome (SRY). The production of testosterone by a boy's testes is necessary for sexual differentiation of the sexual organs between weeks 6 and 12 of pregnancy. The peripheral conversion of testosterone into dihydrotestosterone is essential for the formation of a boy's penis, prostate and scrotum. Instead, the development of the female sexual organs in the womb is based primarily on the absence of androgens (1). Once the differentiation of the sexual organs into male or female is settled, the next thing that is differentiated is the brain, under the influence, mainly, of sex hormones on the developing brain cells. The changes (permanent) brought about in this stage have organizing effects; later, during puberty, the brain circuits that developed in the womb are activated by sex hormones. This paradigm of sexual differentiation of the brain has been well established, ever since the first paper by Phoenix et al. (2). The fetal brain is protected against the effect of circulating estrogens from the mother by the protein α-fetoprotein, which is produced by the fetus and binds strongly to estrogens but not to testosterone (3,4). However, estrogens do not only reach th...

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“…Some studies have linked increased pregnancy stress with bisexual and homosexual orientation of male children (Dörner, Shenk, Schmiedel, & Ahrens, 1983), but findings from other studies have been inconsistent. For example, Ellis, Ames, Peckham, and Burke (1988) found increased homosexuality among men whose mothers reported pregnancy stress, but only during the second trimester. Bailey, Willerman, and Parks (1991) found that stressful pregnancies predicted reduced heterosexual orientation among females, but not males.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 95%

Two Monozygotic Twin Pairs Discordant for Female-to-Male Transsexualism

Segal

2006

Arch Sex Behav

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Two monozygotic female twin pairs discordant for transsexualism are described. These reports double the number of such case studies in the current scientific literature. Interviews with the twins and their families indicated that unusual medical and life history factors did not play causal roles. However, inspection of medical records for one transsexual twin suggested that some early life experiences may have exacerbated tendencies toward male gender identification. In both pairs, the twins' gender identity differences emerged early, consistent with, but not proof of, co-twin differences in prenatal hormonal influences. The identification of additional discordant MZ female twin pairs can advance biological and psychological understanding of transsexualism. Suggestions for future research, based upon findings from these two twin pairs and from studies of female-to-male transsexuals, are provided.

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Sexual orientation of human offspring may be altered by severe maternal stress during pregnancy

Cited by 73 publications

References 7 publications

Prenatal endocrine influences on sexual orientation and on sexually differentiated childhood behavior

Prenatal endocrine influences on sexual orientation and on sexually differentiated childhood behavior

Sexual differentiation of the human brain in relation to gender identity and sexual orientation

Two Monozygotic Twin Pairs Discordant for Female-to-Male Transsexualism

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