Short- and Long-Term Implications of Human Milk Microbiota on Maternal and Child Health

Abstract

Human milk (HM) is considered the most complete food for infants as its nutritional composition is specifically designed to meet infant nutritional requirements during early life. HM also provides numerous biologically active components, such as polyunsaturated fatty acids, milk fat globules, IgA, gangliosides or polyamines, among others; in addition, HM has a “bifidogenic effect”, a prebiotic effect, as a result of the low concentration of proteins and phosphates, as well as the presence of lactoferrin, lactose, nucleotides and oligosaccharides. Recently, has been a growing interest in HM as a potential source of probiotics and commensal bacteria to the infant gut, which might, in turn, influence both the gut colonization and maturation of infant immune system. Our review aims to address practical approaches to the detection of microbial communities in human breast milk samples, delving into their origin, composition and functions. Furthermore, we will summarize the current knowledge of how HM microbiota dysbiosis acts as a short- and long-term predictor of maternal and infant health. Finally, we also provide a critical view of the role of breast milk-related bacteria as a novel probiotic strategy in the prevention and treatment of maternal and offspring diseases.

Personalized Nutrition with Banked Human Milk for Early Gut Microbiota Development: In Pursuit of the Perfect Match

“…Moreover, breastfeeding is known to decrease the risk of allergies, and non-communicable diseases during childhood [68]. In addition, lactation promotes good physical and psychological recovery of the mother after childbirth, improving infant care and reducing health costs for both individual families and the public socioeconomic burden [77,78]. That is why the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), in their 2014 policy report, strongly recommend human breast milk as the exclusive food from the first hour of life up to six months of age, combined with complementary solid foods thereafter, until two years of age or beyond [79].…”

“…Human milk contains all the macro-and micro-nutrients essential for newborns, in adequate amounts to enhance their growth and development. In fact, this biological fluid is considered a "living tissue" as it is composed of immune cells, microorganisms and a myriad of biologically active molecules, all of which have protective effects on the health of infants [78]. These nutritional and bioactive constituents vary among mothers, depending on genetic, lifestyle and perinatal factors.…”

Feeding the microbiota–gut–brain axis: Nucleotides and their role in early life

“…The colonization and formation of microbes in the gut in early life can act as a specific antigen to induce gut immune system responses, thereby promoting the development and maturation of gut immune function (Cai et al., 2016). As a widely distributed active substance in breast milk, NTs work with commensal microbiota in human milk to modulate immune responses in newborns, protecting them from asthma, allergies, and other noncommunicable diseases (Garcia‐Ricobaraza et al., 2021). Preterm infants delivered by cesarean section who receive antibiotics have a reduced GM repair capacity and impaired NT metabolic function and purine metabolic pathways.…”

Composition of Microbiota in Transient and Mature Human Milk: Significant Changes in Large for Gestational Age Group

“…Breastfeeding is often regarded as the gold standard in infant nutrition, as human milk (HM) is specifically designed to meet the rapid growth needs of newborns in a timely manner [ 1 , 2 ]. Aside from being the main source of nutrition for infants, HM also plays a crucial role in introducing beneficial microbes into the infant gut during early life [ 1 , 3 ].…”