Signature of Himalayan orogenic features in Brahmaputra River sediments, Bangladesh: Evidence from single-grain heavy mineral chemistry
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Primary source of titanomagnetite ores at the Orokolo Bay placer deposit: Implications for petrogenesis
Coastal and river sand sequences of Holocene age at Orokolo Bay in Papua New Guinea are host to secondary titanomagnetite ore deposits. The resource developer (Mayur Resources) declares a measured orebody of 139 million tons at grades of 11.35% Fe, 1.94% Ti, and 712 ppm Zr. Orokolo Bay is located near the boundary between the Papuan Thrust and Fold Belt and the Aure Fold Belt. This region is characterized by sedimentary rocks of the Papuan Basin, which are intruded and overlain by a diverse array of magmatic intrusive and volcanic rocks, ranging from mafic alkaline to felsic calc‐alkaline types related to arc–continent collisions in the Cenozoic. The Vailala and Purari rivers located to the east and west of Orokolo Bay, respectively, are the main sediment pathways. Earlier provenance studies have suggested that the deposited sediments mainly come from the erosion of volcanic rocks found within the catchments of these two rivers. However, these studies did not specifically identify the primary source of the Fe‐Ti ores within this region. Here, we report on a potential primary source of the Fe‐Ti ores by examining the occurrence and chemical compositions for detrital titanomagnetites, and associated pyroxene and amphibole minerals. The purpose of this was to discern specific attributes of the primary source for its identification. Lithic sediments comprised of magnesio‐hornblende (Mhbl), tschermakaite (Tsr) and magnesio‐hastingsite (Mhst) amphiboles, clinopyroxene (Cpx), and Fe‐Ti oxide minerals dominate the heavy sands. Feldspar is more abundant than quartz, and Cr‐spinel is rare. Two primary titanomagnetite types were categorized based on their homogeneous grain textures and TiO2 content, Tmt1 (average 28 wt% TiO2) and Tmt2 (average 7 wt% TiO2). Pleonaste exsolutions and zircon inclusions distinguish Tmt1 from Tmt2, while apatite and quenched glass inclusions occur in both. A portion of both primary titanomagnetites exhibits hydrothermal overprinting, this subset was categorized as Tmt3 (average 12.5 wt% TiO2). Fe‐Ti oxides are associated with Cpx and amphiboles as inclusions, and as pseudomorphs in opacitic amphiboles. Tmt1 coexists predominantly with Mhst‐Tsr but also appears less frequently with Mhbl and Cpx. Tmt2 occurs almost exclusively with Mhbl and Cpx. Titanomagnetite chemistry is low in Cr, Mg, and V content suggesting crystallization from evolved melts. Tmt3 is shows enriched Si, Ca, Al, and Mg concentrations that are characteristic of late‐stage fluids derived from calcareous rocks. Amphibole and Cpx chemistry indicate they were derived from a subalkaline source magma of arc affinity. Fe‐Ti thermobarometry reveals Tmt1 (990 to 967°C, −0.51 to −0.18 ΔNNO) formed at higher temperatures and in less oxidized conditions than Tmt2 (834 to 689°C, 0.33 to 3.2 ΔNNO). Amphibole thermobarometry reveals Mhst‐Tsr and Mhbl formed under similar conditions as Tmt1 and Tmt2, respectively. The lack of Cr‐spinel, olivine, and the abundant occurrence of zircon and Mhbl indicate an evolved subalkaline source characterized by felsic rocks related to arc magmatism. The only volcanic source which aligns with these characteristics is Mount Yelia within the Vailala River catchment. Compositional variation between Tmt1 and Tmt2 titanomagnetites and associated silicate minerals is attributed to heterogeneous temperature and ƒO2 conditions within the melt during crystallization. The provenance of Ti‐rich titanomagnetite ores from sources related to arc magmatism indicates the potential of other areas associated with arc activity in Papua New Guinea to host secondary deposits rich in Fe‐Ti ores.
Primary source of titanomagnetite ores at the Orokolo Bay placer deposit: Implications for petrogenesis
Coastal and river sand sequences of Holocene age at Orokolo Bay in Papua New Guinea are host to secondary titanomagnetite ore deposits. The resource developer (Mayur Resources) declares a measured orebody of 139 million tons at grades of 11.35% Fe, 1.94% Ti, and 712 ppm Zr. Orokolo Bay is located near the boundary between the Papuan Thrust and Fold Belt and the Aure Fold Belt. This region is characterized by sedimentary rocks of the Papuan Basin, which are intruded and overlain by a diverse array of magmatic intrusive and volcanic rocks, ranging from mafic alkaline to felsic calc‐alkaline types related to arc–continent collisions in the Cenozoic. The Vailala and Purari rivers located to the east and west of Orokolo Bay, respectively, are the main sediment pathways. Earlier provenance studies have suggested that the deposited sediments mainly come from the erosion of volcanic rocks found within the catchments of these two rivers. However, these studies did not specifically identify the primary source of the Fe‐Ti ores within this region. Here, we report on a potential primary source of the Fe‐Ti ores by examining the occurrence and chemical compositions for detrital titanomagnetites, and associated pyroxene and amphibole minerals. The purpose of this was to discern specific attributes of the primary source for its identification. Lithic sediments comprised of magnesio‐hornblende (Mhbl), tschermakaite (Tsr) and magnesio‐hastingsite (Mhst) amphiboles, clinopyroxene (Cpx), and Fe‐Ti oxide minerals dominate the heavy sands. Feldspar is more abundant than quartz, and Cr‐spinel is rare. Two primary titanomagnetite types were categorized based on their homogeneous grain textures and TiO2 content, Tmt1 (average 28 wt% TiO2) and Tmt2 (average 7 wt% TiO2). Pleonaste exsolutions and zircon inclusions distinguish Tmt1 from Tmt2, while apatite and quenched glass inclusions occur in both. A portion of both primary titanomagnetites exhibits hydrothermal overprinting, this subset was categorized as Tmt3 (average 12.5 wt% TiO2). Fe‐Ti oxides are associated with Cpx and amphiboles as inclusions, and as pseudomorphs in opacitic amphiboles. Tmt1 coexists predominantly with Mhst‐Tsr but also appears less frequently with Mhbl and Cpx. Tmt2 occurs almost exclusively with Mhbl and Cpx. Titanomagnetite chemistry is low in Cr, Mg, and V content suggesting crystallization from evolved melts. Tmt3 is shows enriched Si, Ca, Al, and Mg concentrations that are characteristic of late‐stage fluids derived from calcareous rocks. Amphibole and Cpx chemistry indicate they were derived from a subalkaline source magma of arc affinity. Fe‐Ti thermobarometry reveals Tmt1 (990 to 967°C, −0.51 to −0.18 ΔNNO) formed at higher temperatures and in less oxidized conditions than Tmt2 (834 to 689°C, 0.33 to 3.2 ΔNNO). Amphibole thermobarometry reveals Mhst‐Tsr and Mhbl formed under similar conditions as Tmt1 and Tmt2, respectively. The lack of Cr‐spinel, olivine, and the abundant occurrence of zircon and Mhbl indicate an evolved subalkaline source characterized by felsic rocks related to arc magmatism. The only volcanic source which aligns with these characteristics is Mount Yelia within the Vailala River catchment. Compositional variation between Tmt1 and Tmt2 titanomagnetites and associated silicate minerals is attributed to heterogeneous temperature and ƒO2 conditions within the melt during crystallization. The provenance of Ti‐rich titanomagnetite ores from sources related to arc magmatism indicates the potential of other areas associated with arc activity in Papua New Guinea to host secondary deposits rich in Fe‐Ti ores.
In this study, we visualize and analyze the literature on the Brahmaputra river using a spectral clustering algorithm, tracking research trends over time. We found that the focus of research on the Brahmaputra has changed over time in the last decade, with a shift from geology to hydrology and geochemistry and a rapid growth in climate change research in recent years. In the future, potential hot topics may be “water resource management” and other topics related to transboundary water resource management and cooperation. At the same time, this study also analyzes in detail the keywords and clusters “geohydrology” and “ecological risk and sustainable development”, among other topics. We believe that future research should carefully consider the potential effects of transdisciplinary research trends. For instance, it is urgent that transborder governance and management regimes be renovated through joint efforts and cross-border effective actions carried out by multifaceted and multi-scalar agencies along this river.
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