Silence in the Second Language Classroom

Abstract

This mixed-methods investigation reports on the under-researched issue of silence within Japanese university second language (L2) classrooms. An extensive, multi-site study using a structured observation methodology was employed to investigate the classroom behaviour of over 900 language learners across nine universities in Japan. To effectively measure the extent of macro-level silence within their classrooms, an original observation instrument called the Classroom Oral Participation Scheme (COPS) was specially developed for the task. A total of 48 hours of data was collected using a minute-by-minute sampling strategy which resulted in some startling results.Learners were found to be responsible for less than one percent of initiated talk within their classes, while over a fifth of total class time observed was characterised by no oral participation by any participants. Complementing the COPS' quantitative evidence of a robust national trend of silence in Japan's universities, a parallel qualitative phase of the investigation gave students a voice about their silences by drawing on over seventy-thousand words of transcribed data collected during a series of semi-structured interviews. This phase of the research provided a valuable individual-level analysis of learners' fundamental beliefs about and personal experiences of not speaking in L2 educational contexts. The final phase of the project adopted an event-specific focus on classroom silence by utilising a stimulated recall methodology to uncover what students were actually thinking and feeling whilst silent i episodes were in progress during lessons. Using Dynamic Systems Theory (DST) as its conceptual background, the investigation moves away from reductionist, single-cause explanations for learner reticence to suggest that silence actually emerges through multiple, concurrent routes. These routes (termed attractors in DST) are so abundant, and appear to be so well supported both educationally and culturally in the Japanese context, that silence has fossilised into a semi-permanent attractor state within university language classrooms.ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Talk, silence and anxiety during one-to-one tutorials: A cross-cultural comparative study of Japan and UK undergraduates’ tolerance of silence

“…Interpersonal power differences can help shape whether an individual decides to speak or not, with those in a subordinate position being more likely to remain silent (Braithwaite 1990;Gilmore 1985;King 2013a). With Japan's particularistic, rather than universalistic orientation towards social relationships and its preoccupation with the maintenance of face during interpersonal exchanges (see Akasu and Asao 1993), we would have expected the study's Japanese participants to have referred to this issue during interviews.…”

“…What emerges in these accounts is the inherent ambiguity of silence and the students' anxious struggle to try and interpret its meaning. Rather than being communicative blanks in which nothing of importance happens, periods of silence may actually be rich in illocutionary force and full of meaning (Bruneau 1973;Ephratt 2008;Jaworski 1993;King 2013a;Saville-Troike 1985). What makes the situation even more problematic for these students is that the inherent ambiguity of silence tends to be exacerbated when it occurs within an intercultural context in which interlocutors lack a common background and do not share implicit assumptions about the messages which silence may carry.…”

A Comparative Study on the Passivity of the Students Learning English as a Second Language at Aleksandras Stulginskis University

“…The key reasons for being passive in the Faculty of Economics and Management were mentionedunwillingness to show emotions due to the deeply rooted habit or lack of knowledge, while in the Faculty of Forestry and Ecology -fear to show emotions. The obtained results let us think that students' passivity comes from their previous learning experience where typical form of interaction that failed to initiate students' activities in a constructive and productive manner (King, 2013). We should admit that students especially in rural schools have limited chances to participate actively in the teaching/learning process.…”

“…Success in foreign language learning has been attributed to individual differences such as intelligence, aptitude, personality, motivation, and anxiety (Rossiter, 2010). However, in general, silence is related to fear of saying the wrong thing, showing emotions, being negatively judged not only by a teacher, but also by group-mates (King, 2013).…”

Intercultural (mis)communication in teacher‐student interaction

“…King's quantitative study is part of a larger study(King, 2013b) that uses interviews and stimulated recall to get at the motivations underlying the students' behavior.…”