Silicon Photomultipliers: Technology Optimizations for Ultraviolet, Visible and Near-Infrared Range

Abstract

Silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) are single-photon sensitive solid-state detectors that are becoming popular for several applications, thanks to massive performance improvements over the last years. Starting as a replacement for the photomultiplier tube (PMT), they are now used in medical applications, big high-energy physics experiments, nuclear physics experiments, spectroscopy, biology and light detection and ranging (LIDAR) applications. Due to different requirements in terms of detection efficiency, noise, etc., several optimizations have been introduced by the manufacturers; for example, spectral sensitivity has been optimized for visible light, near ultraviolet, vacuum ultraviolet, and near infrared light. Each one of them require specific processes and structural optimization. We present in this paper recent improvements in SiPM performance, owing to a higher cell fill-factor, lower noise, improved silicon materials, and deep trench isolation. We describe issues related to the characterization of analog SiPM, particularly due to the different sources of correlated noise, which have to be distinguished from each other and from the primary pulses. We also describe particular analyses and optimizations conducted for specific applications like the readout of liquid noble gas scintillators, requiring these detectors to operate at cryogenic temperatures.

Evaluation of silicon photomultipliers for multiphoton and laser scanning microscopy

“…While the GaAsP PMT retains a small PDE advantage, the excess noise of SIPM detectors has improved rapidly in recent years, 6 resulting in overall better SNR than a GaAsP PMT when used at detection bandwidths where the effect of dark current is negligible. It is interesting to note that the PDE of the S14420-3025 is limited by the relatively low fill factor (63%) of the APDs because the quench resistors are mounted on top of the detector and therefore block a large fraction of incident photons.…”

“…Furthermore, compared to photocathode materials, silicon diodes have high quantum efficiency in the near-infrared wavelengths used for deep tissue imaging. 6 Finally, the linearity at high power combined with high durability is an important advantage in many areas of medical imaging, where PMTs require specially designed overcurrent circuits and interlocks to avoid damage from normal clinic lights or from excessively bright samples. In contrast, SIPMs are routinely used for outdoor sensing applications and are exposed to direct sunlight.…”

Silicon Photo-Multipliers

“…Already at the time of the first successful demonstrations of the SiPM concept in the late 1990s, the many possible applications had been realised [5]. However, it was also realised that different applications need different optimisations as discussed in [1]. Today SiPMs are used in fields as diverse as nuclear and particle physics, use for IACTs has been pioneered by the construction of FACT [6].…”

“…Cooling significantly reduces the DCR until band-to-band tunnelling dominates. For specific designs DCRs below 10 -2 Hz/mm 2 have been reached at cryogenic temperatures [1]. Irradiation by hadrons results in a dramatic increase of DCR: An increase by 7 orders of magnitude for neutron fluences exceeding 10 13 cm -2 is observed.…”

Quantum Calibration of Photon-Number-Resolving Detectors Based on Multi-Pixel Photon Counters

“…MPPC has many advantages such as excellent photon-number-resolving capability, great response speed, high time resolution, and wide spectral response range. The compactness of MPPC enables it to be packaged into different devices for different demands and be applied to many research fields [32]. MPPC can also be combined with frequency up-conversion systems to achieve the infrared PNRD [6,33,34].…”