Similarities and differences in mechanisms of cardiotoxins, melittin and other myotoxins

Cellular pathology induced by snake venom phospholipase A2 myotoxins and neurotoxins: common aspects of their mechanisms of action

“…Moreover, the effect of the neurotoxins at the NMJ and on synaptosomes is rapidly reversed by albumin washing, which removes FAs [50,67], and this should not be the case if FAs are inside mitochondria. Myotoxins were shown to induce the production of FAs in primary human myoblasts and mouse NB41A3 neuroblastoma cells [77,78] and in vivo after myotoxin injection in muscle tissue [79]. LysoPLs were not measured at the same time.…”

Beta-synemin expression in cardiotoxin-injected rat skeletal muscle

“…Therefore, it is unknown from this analysis, whether each α-dystrobrevin isoform has the same affinity for β-synemin or whether one of the isoforms functions coordinately with β-synemin in vivo . Muscle degeneration and regeneration can be induced by injecting bupivacaine [15], the venom of Australian tiger snake [16], and cardiotoxin [10-13,17,18] from the Taiwan cobra (Naja naja atra) directly into rat muscle. Using this assay, we analyzed β-synemin and α-dystrobrevin to correlate their expression patterns during skeletal muscle regeneration.…”

Mouse gastrocnemius muscle regeneration after mechanical or cardiotoxin injury

“…Among the toxins tested have been snake venoms such as cardiotoxin [7] or notexin [8]. Cardiotoxin leads to the myolysis of myofibers by inducing plasma membrane depolarization [22], and is also postulated to be neurotoxic as its injection destroys neuromuscular plates [21]. Moreover, CTX does not influence muscle architecture like basal lamina or microvasculature, making the regeneration process less complicated [27].…”

“…Moreover, only a few papers have included a detailed, side by side, comparison of the muscle regeneration induced using different methods, and these publications do not cover all the molecular changes occurring within the muscles [13][14][15]. To fill this gap in knowledge, we aimed to carefully compare the dynamics of regeneration induced by two types of commonly used injury methods: crushing [11,[16][17][18][19][20] and CTX injection [7,[21][22][23][24][25][26]. Crushing, accompanied by denervation, causes muscle degeneration as a result of mechanical devastation of myofibers [11].…”

“…Crushing, accompanied by denervation, causes muscle degeneration as a result of mechanical devastation of myofibers [11]. Cardiotoxin, on the other hand, is a myotoxic agent that leads to the myolysis of myofibers by inducing rapid plasma membrane depolarization [22]. In addition, internal structure of the muscle, i.e.…”