“…A common theme in determining the vibrational spectroscopy of water is unraveling site-specific interactions in water clusters, namely in characterizing the free and bound O–H stretches. Using linear spectroscopy, such as FTIR and Raman, can reveal essential information about hydrogen bond strengths and the local environment of water through the OH stretching mode frequency; however, these spectra often suffer from spectral congestion and band broadening. , Beyond purely vibrational spectroscopy, vibrational SFG has recently been used in visualizing the extent of interfacial water and probing water–surface interactions. ,, This technique improves upon pure IR measurements by distinct electronic excitations that suggest molecular locality and directionality in addition to characteristic vibrational modes. A special case of SFG is Second Harmonic Generation (SHG) spectra where the visible and IR excitation frequencies are identical; recent studies emphasizing second order nonlinear susceptibility measured in SHG have diminished some issues researchers have experienced in modeling more distinct features in charged interfaces and water–silica interfaces, − including acceptor–donor, acceptor–donor–donor (ADD), acceptor–acceptor–donor (AAD), as the main examples .…”