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Expression of recombinant proteins in Escherichia coli is normally accompanied by the formation of inclusion bodies (IBs). To obtain the protein product in an active (native) soluble form, the IBs must be first solubilized, and thereafter, the soluble, often denatured and reduced protein must be refolded. Several technically feasible alternatives to conduct IBs solubilization and on-column refolding have been proposed in recent years. However, rarely these on-column refolding alternatives have been evaluated from an economical point of view, questioning the feasibility of their implementation at a preparative scale. The presented study assesses the economic performance of four distinct process alternatives that include pH induced IBs solubilization and protein refolding (pH_IndSR); IBs solubilization using urea, dithiothreitol (DTT), and alkaline pH followed by batch size-exclusion protein refolding; inclusion bodies (IBs) solubilization using urea, DTT, and alkaline pH followed by simulated moving bed (SMB) size-exclusion protein refolding, and IBs solubilization using urea, DTT and alkaline pH followed by batch dilution protein refolding. The economic performance was judged on the basis of the direct fixed capital, and the production cost per unit of product (P(C)). This work shows that (1) pH_IndSR system is a relatively economical process, because of the low IBs solubilization cost; (2) substituting β-mercaptoethanol for dithiothreithol is an attractive alternative, as it significantly decreases the product cost contribution from the IBs solubilization; and (3) protein refolding by size-exclusion chromatography becomes economically attractive by changing the mode of operation of the chromatographic reactor from batch to continuous using SMB technology.
Expression of recombinant proteins in Escherichia coli is normally accompanied by the formation of inclusion bodies (IBs). To obtain the protein product in an active (native) soluble form, the IBs must be first solubilized, and thereafter, the soluble, often denatured and reduced protein must be refolded. Several technically feasible alternatives to conduct IBs solubilization and on-column refolding have been proposed in recent years. However, rarely these on-column refolding alternatives have been evaluated from an economical point of view, questioning the feasibility of their implementation at a preparative scale. The presented study assesses the economic performance of four distinct process alternatives that include pH induced IBs solubilization and protein refolding (pH_IndSR); IBs solubilization using urea, dithiothreitol (DTT), and alkaline pH followed by batch size-exclusion protein refolding; inclusion bodies (IBs) solubilization using urea, DTT, and alkaline pH followed by simulated moving bed (SMB) size-exclusion protein refolding, and IBs solubilization using urea, DTT and alkaline pH followed by batch dilution protein refolding. The economic performance was judged on the basis of the direct fixed capital, and the production cost per unit of product (P(C)). This work shows that (1) pH_IndSR system is a relatively economical process, because of the low IBs solubilization cost; (2) substituting β-mercaptoethanol for dithiothreithol is an attractive alternative, as it significantly decreases the product cost contribution from the IBs solubilization; and (3) protein refolding by size-exclusion chromatography becomes economically attractive by changing the mode of operation of the chromatographic reactor from batch to continuous using SMB technology.
The objective of this chapter is to present a comprehensive overview of the key aspects of downstream process (DSP) development of proteins and peptides. The chapter opens with a general description of the DSP steps and highlights their objectives and the basic bioseparation techniques employed. After introducing the reader to the general aspects of DSP, recent developments in inclusion bodies refolding are presented. There are several challenges facing downstream process development, and strategies for protein/peptide purification process development and how each tries to address/overcome the DSP challenges are reviewed. Finally, expert views on future directions of purification process development efforts are presented.
Chromatography, although initially prevalent in the analytical field, is increasingly extended as a preparative process for the commercial scale production of several chemicals whose separation from feed streams is difficult to achieve by conventional methods. In this chapter, the most relevant and recent preparative chromatography approaches are presented and discussed, divided in terms of batch and continuous processes. The fundamental conservation equations, kinetic laws, and equilibrium relations governing chromatographic systems are presented in detail as they are common to all processes modeling. Several models and approaches are presented in an order of higher approximation to reality that necessarily results in an increasing degree of mathematical sophistication. This complexity trend is linked to the sequential introduction of the various phenomena that take place inside the adsorption bed. In particular, the influence of finite mass transfer resistances and axial dispersion upon the dynamic behavior of the chromatographic system is highlighted. With regard to batch chromatography, the most frequent techniques, such as preparative HPLC and supercritical fluid chromatography are covered, along with key chromatography concepts. Closed loop recycling chromatography and steady‐state recycling chromatography are recycling techniques that may be situated between batch and continuous strategies, being able to enhance the performance of batch systems while avoiding the higher complexity inherent to continuous approaches. Regarding continuous chromatography, the development of the simulated moving bed ( SMB ) technology has allowed improved productivity, product's purities, and lower operating costs compared to batch processing. Since its inception, several different strategies and modifications to the conventional SMB have been proposed. The well‐established and the most innovative SMB operation modes, such as intermittent‐ SMB , supercritical SMB , and variable external streams systems, are presented and discussed, along with the necessary equipment designs that allow their implementation. Other continuous chromatographic processes include the high‐speed countercurrent chromatography and the centrifugal partition chromatography, both involving two immiscible liquid phases, and annular chromatography that permits continuous operation while using a stationary phase. Some brief remarks are made on equipment and system designs.
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