Skeletal Muscle and the Effects of Ammonia Toxicity in Fish, Mammalian, and Avian Species: A Comparative Review Based on Molecular Research

Abstract

<jats:p>Typically, mammalian and avian models have been used to examine the effects of ammonia on skeletal muscle. Hyperammonemia causes sarcopenia or muscle wasting, in mammals and has been linked to sarcopenia in liver disease patients. Avian models of skeletal muscle have responded positively to hyperammonemia, differing from the mammalian response. Fish skeletal muscle has not been examined as extensively as mammalian and avian muscle. Fish skeletal muscle shares similarities with avian and mammalian muscle but has notable differences in growth, fiber distribution, and response to the environment. The wide array of body sizes and locomotion needs of fish also leads to greater diversity in muscle fiber distribution and growth between different fish species. The response of fish muscle to high levels of ammonia is important for aquaculture and quality food production but has not been extensively studied to date. Understanding the differences between fish, mammalian and avian species’ myogenic response to hyperammonemia could lead to new therapies for muscle wasting due to a greater understanding of the mechanisms behind skeletal muscle regulation and how ammonia effects these mechanisms. This paper provides an overview of fish skeletal muscle and ammonia excretion and toxicity in fish, as well as a comparison to avian and mammalian species.</jats:p>

Influence of the interposition of pink muscle fibers in the dorsal ordinary muscle on the postmortem hardness of meat in various fishes

“…The pink muscle fibers have an acid‐ and alkaline‐stable mATPase activity, and only react with the anti‐slow myosin sera (Rowlerson, Scapolo, Mascarello, Carpenè, & Veggetti, 1985; SäNger & Stoiber, 2001). Through the stability of fiber during alkaline preincubation before myofibrillar ATPase staining recruitment, the pink fibers can be identified histochemically (Johnston et al, 1974; Miramontes et al, 2020; SäNger & Stoiber, 2001). Figure 2 shows an example of actomyosin ATPase‐stained and PAS stained serial tissue sections of filefish muscles.…”

“…Pink muscle fibers are usually not only recruited at moderate swimming speeds but also participated in sustained swimming at high speeds along with red muscle fibers (Johnston et al, 1977; Miramontes et al, 2020). The pink muscle fibers, if present in a particular species, vary in amount according to the swimming needs of that specific species (Miramontes et al, 2020; Rowlerson et al, 1995).…”

“…Pink muscle fibers are usually not only recruited at moderate swimming speeds but also participated in sustained swimming at high speeds along with red muscle fibers (Johnston et al, 1977; Miramontes et al, 2020). The pink muscle fibers, if present in a particular species, vary in amount according to the swimming needs of that specific species (Miramontes et al, 2020; Rowlerson et al, 1995). The intermediate muscle is relatively abundant in the position of adenine nucleotide translocator 1 (ANT‐1) and adenine nucleotide translocator 2 (ANT‐2) (Rome et al, 1993) where the pink layer in was determined histochemically to be 87 and 91% of pink muscle fibers.…”

“…Although the roles of dark muscle in sustained swimming (Coughlin, Zhang, & Rome, 1996; Rome, Swank, & Corda, 1993; Swank, Zhang, & Rome, 1997) and the significances of ordinary muscle to the meat quality (Hashimoto, Osaki, Kawamura, & Yazawa, 2019; Hong, Regenstein, & Luo, 2017; Miyazaki et al, 2019; Yuan et al, 2018) in fish have been studied in detail in recent years, the contributions of intermediate muscle have yet to receive attention (Coughlin et al, 1996). Pink muscle fibers, by their name, are not only intermediate in the position between red and white muscle fibers (SäNger & Stoiber, 2001) but also in most aspects of their physical appearance and physiological functioning (Johnston et al, 1977; Miramontes et al, 2020; Rowlerson, Mascarello, Radaelli, & Veggetti, 1995). As a recorded, the intermediate levels of myofibrillar ATPase activity were red:pink:white ratio of 1:2:4 (Coughlin et al, 1996; Johnston et al, 1977).…”

“TIS Biscuit” with High Content of Amino Acid and Mineral to Prevent Stunting

“…The addition of a lot of seluang fish flour can cause a bitter taste caused by ammonia. Ammonia is abundant in fish, about 95% of ammonia is in the form of NH4+ in fish bodies [39]. Ammonia has an unpleasant taste so that the addition of large fish flour causes a bitter taste in TIS biscuits [44].…”