Slow lorises use venom as a weapon in intraspecific competition

Nekaris, K. Anne-Isola; Campera, Marco; Nijman, Vincent; Birot, Hélène; Rode-Margono, Eva Johanna; Fry, Bryan G.; Weldon, Ariana; Wirdateti, Wirdateti; Imron, Muhammad Ali

doi:10.1016/j.cub.2020.08.084

Cited by 26 publications

(53 citation statements)

References 9 publications

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“…Javan slow loris spends as much as 65% of their time in spatial proximity, including body contact for an average of 18% of their time (Nekaris, 2014). Studies have also demonstrated that male slow lorises are often found with scars, which has led some researchers to conclude that slow loris venom is used for intraspecific competition (Nekaris et al, 2013(Nekaris et al, , 2020. A recent study investigating the ranging patterns of a pygmy slow loris in Cambodia found that the home ranges of some individuals overlapped with others to a small degree.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Social relationships among captive male pygmy slow lorises (Nycticebus pygmaeus): Is forming male same‐sex pairs a feasible management strategy?

Yamanashi

Nemoto

Alejandro

2021

American J Primatol

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Little is known about the social behavior of pygmy slow lorises, in particular, the social relationships of same-sex individuals have rarely been investigated. The Slow Loris Conservation Center was built at the Japan Monkey Center to enhance the welfare of confiscated slow lorises, promote their conservation, improve public education, and perform scientific research on the species. In the course of improving

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Social relationships among captive male pygmy slow lorises (Nycticebus pygmaeus): Is forming male same‐sex pairs a feasible management strategy?

Yamanashi

Nemoto

Alejandro

2021

American J Primatol

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“…However, following the venom definition proposed by Fry et al [21], three species of vampire bats (Chirpotera), i.e., Desmodus rotundus, Diaemus youngi and Diphylla ecuadta [22,35,[46][47][48][49], and as many as eight species of slow lorises (Nycticebus spp.) (Primates) can be classified as venomous, although among lorises only four species (N. bengalensis, N. coucang, N. pygmaeus and N. javanicus) have been confirmed as venomous so far [16,35,[50][51][52][53]. Additionally, hedgehogs, closely related to shrews [54], have been suspected of being venomous, but studies by Mebs [55] on the biological and enzymatic activities of saliva of the European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus have shown that hedgehogs do not produce venom in their salivary glands.…”

Section: Venomous Mammalsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Interest in the evolution and ecological functions of venomousness in animals has increased markedly during the last decade [16,53,58,61,[120][121][122][123]. Recently, Schendel et al [123] distinguished 14 different functions of animal venoms, although only six were associated with mammals.…”

Section: Ecological Functions Of the Eulipotyphlan Venommentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Recently, Schendel et al [123] distinguished 14 different functions of animal venoms, although only six were associated with mammals. However, based on the papers by other authors [16,36,53,58,61,[120][121][122]124,125], and including the functions proposed below by us, as many as 11 functions of mammal venoms can be considered ( Figure 6). Of these, prey hunting, predator defense, and intraspecific competition are the most frequently mentioned functions by different authors, followed by prey immobilization, ectoparasite defense and intraspecific communication [15,16,36,58,[123][124][125].…”

Section: Ecological Functions Of the Eulipotyphlan Venommentioning

confidence: 99%

“…obser.). High interspecific aggressiveness is typically motivated by a need to defend mates or/and territories with food (including food stores) or other resources [16,53,183,199], and meeting all of these needs may be more effective by using venom in intraspecific conflicts ( Figure 6).…”

Section: Ecological Functions Of the Eulipotyphlan Venommentioning

confidence: 99%

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Venom Use in Eulipotyphlans: An Evolutionary and Ecological Approach

Kowalski

Rychlik

2021

Toxins

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Venomousness is a complex functional trait that has evolved independently many times in the animal kingdom, although it is rare among mammals. Intriguingly, most venomous mammal species belong to Eulipotyphla (solenodons, shrews). This fact may be linked to their high metabolic rate and a nearly continuous demand of nutritious food, and thus it relates the venom functions to facilitation of their efficient foraging. While mammalian venoms have been investigated using biochemical and molecular assays, studies of their ecological functions have been neglected for a long time. Therefore, we provide here an overview of what is currently known about eulipotyphlan venoms, followed by a discussion of how these venoms might have evolved under ecological pressures related to food acquisition, ecological interactions, and defense and protection. We delineate six mutually nonexclusive functions of venom (prey hunting, food hoarding, food digestion, reducing intra- and interspecific conflicts, avoidance of predation risk, weapons in intraspecific competition) and a number of different subfunctions for eulipotyphlans, among which some are so far only hypothetical while others have some empirical confirmation. The functions resulting from the need for food acquisition seem to be the most important for solenodons and especially for shrews. We also present several hypotheses explaining why, despite so many potentially beneficial functions, venomousness is rare even among eulipotyphlans. The tentativeness of many of the arguments presented in this review highlights our main conclusion, i.e., insights regarding the functions of eulipotyphlan venoms merit additional study.

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Welfare assessment of slow loris (Nycticebus spp.) at an Indonesian primate rehabilitation center: Development and validation of body condition score

Ghassani,

Rianti,

Priambada

et al. 2023

American J Primatol

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Body condition scoring (BCS) assessment can reflect animal welfare status and help the veterinarian to make a quick health management decision, including for confiscated slow loris (Nycticebus spp.). The confiscated slow loris should be rehabilitated in a rehabilitation center before being released. It is essential to monitor the welfare of slow loris to ensure that candidates are released. Assessment of animal welfare status requires representative measurable criteria and indicators.However, there is no standardized BCS for slow loris yet. This study focuses on developing and validating BCS based on body weight and circumference. In this study, 180 individuals were evaluated and scored. We measured body weight and circumferences to validate the assessment of BCS. There are no significant differences in body weight and circumferences within species and sexes. Muscle mass and fat deposits were palpated, visually viewed, and grouped in five BCS. There was a significant difference in body weight and circumference between BCS levels.According to this study, the development of BCS is valid and can be used to slow loris in prevailing circumstances and any ex-situ facilities.

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Slow lorises use venom as a weapon in intraspecific competition

Cited by 26 publications

References 9 publications

Social relationships among captive male pygmy slow lorises (Nycticebus pygmaeus): Is forming male same‐sex pairs a feasible management strategy?

Social relationships among captive male pygmy slow lorises (Nycticebus pygmaeus): Is forming male same‐sex pairs a feasible management strategy?

Venom Use in Eulipotyphlans: An Evolutionary and Ecological Approach

Welfare assessment of slow loris (Nycticebus spp.) at an Indonesian primate rehabilitation center: Development and validation of body condition score

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