Smallpox

Benenson, Abram S.

doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-0705-1_24

Cited by 2 publications

(3 citation statements)

References 48 publications

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“…Gamma interferon, which is made by specific classes of T lymphocytes after stimulation with immunogen, is also effecs 44 < tive at blocking poxvirus replication, although the mechanism of action has not been thoroughly studied (414). It was > >found by Steinberger and Rights (441) that freshly explanted X s Q spleen cells from immune animals were more resistant to 0 r t vaccinia virus infection than were those from unimmunized s) r &.…”

Section: Interferonsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Similarly, with other poxviruses (variola, vaccinia, and ectromelia viruses) there was an infiltration of neutrophils and macrophages into secondary sites of virus infection by days 8 to 10 p.i. (44,86,154,173,408). Secondary immunizations with poxviruses typically lead to a DTH-mediated infiltration of mononuclear cells into the site of virus infection within 24 h (56, 119).…”

Section: Dth Reactions Have Been Observed In Most Poxvirusmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Poxvirus pathogenesis.

Buller

Palumbo

1991

Microbiological Reviews

293

163

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Marchal (285) and Downie (126) bodies, respectively. Because of the ambiguity associated with describing structures solely on the basis of their reaction with various histochemical stains, Kato et al. (253) carefully examined the virusspecific cytoplasmic structures of a large number of poxvirus species and, using a criterion based on morphologic observations, histochemical staining, and immunochemical reactivity, suggested that the acidophilic and basophilic inclusion bodies be referred to as A-and B-type inclusion bodies, respectively. Under the auspices of a Poxvirus Subcommittee created at the Sixth International Congress for Microbiology in 1953, Fenner and Burnet (161) wrote a review which summarized the characteristics of the poxvirus group. This article remains the basis for the subsequent classification of poxviruses. The poxvirus family is divided into two subfamilies: Entomopoxvirinae (poxviruses of the insects) and Chordopoxvirinae (poxviruses of the vertebrates); the latter group of viruses is the focus of this review (Table 1). The vertebrate poxviruses share a group-specific NP antigen (511) and are able, in a reciprocal fashion, to participate in nongenetic reactivation (160, 168). This is a process whereby an infectious poxvirus is able to reactivate a second, heatinactivated poxvirus, as indicated by the production of progeny virus. Poxviruses were further classified into genera by comparing cross-protection in animal studies, crossneutralization of infectivity in tissue culture, and crosshybridization of genomic DNA from virions. This latter criterion is now the method of choice for preliminary classification of poxvirus isolates. In general, members of the same genera have similar morphology and biological properties. Virion Morphology Poxviruses are the largest of all animal viruses and can be visualized by light microscopy, although the details of the

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Section: Interferonsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Dth Reactions Have Been Observed In Most Poxvirusmentioning

confidence: 99%

Poxvirus pathogenesis.

Buller

Palumbo

1991

Microbiological Reviews

293

163

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“…Life-threatening human diseases such as smallpox, tuberculosis and malaria have been present throughout recorded history (Manchester, 1984 ;Des Prez & Goodwin, 1985;Benenson, 1989 ;Klayman, 1989 ;Neff, 1990). The persistence of high virulence over millennia runs counter to the traditional view that all pathogens should eventually evolve to a state of commensalism with their host (Dubos, 1965;Hoeprich, 1989).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Pathogen survival in the external environment and the evolution of virulence

2004

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Recent studies have provided evolutionary explanations for much of the variation in mortality among human infectious diseases. One gap in this knowledge concerns respiratory tract pathogens transmitted from person to person by direct contact or through environmental contamination. The sit-and-wait hypothesis predicts that virulence should be positively correlated with durability in the external environment because high durability reduces the dependence of transmission on host mobility. Reviewing the epidemiological and medical literature, we confirm this prediction for respiratory tract pathogens of humans. Our results clearly distinguish a high-virulence high-survival group of variola (smallpox) virus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Cornynebacterium diphtheriae, Bordetella pertussis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and influenza virus (where all pathogens have a mean percent mortality > or = 0.01% and mean survival time >10 days) from a low-virulence low-survival group containing ten other pathogens. The correlation between virulence and durability explains three to four times of magnitude of difference in mean percent mortality and mean survival time, using both across-species and phylogenetically controlled analyses. Our findings bear on several areas of active research and public health policy: (1) many pathogens used in the biological control of insects are potential sit-and-wait pathogens as they combine three attributes that are advantageous for pest control: high virulence, long durability after application, and host specificity; (2) emerging pathogens such as the 'hospital superbug' methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and potential bioweapons pathogens such as smallpox virus and anthrax that are particularly dangerous can be discerned by quantifying their durability; (3) hospital settings and the AIDS pandemic may provide footholds for emerging sit-and-wait pathogens; and (4) studies on food-borne and insect pathogens point to future research considering the potential evolutionary trade-offs and genetic linkages between virulence and durability.

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Smallpox

Cited by 2 publications

References 48 publications

Poxvirus pathogenesis.

Poxvirus pathogenesis.

Pathogen survival in the external environment and the evolution of virulence

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