“…Evidence shows that tobacco smoking depends on complex social-structural processes ( 22 ) and hence, behavior modification theories are needed for effective WTS prevention ( 23 ). Previous studies into cigarette smoking reported that most smokers were unaware of smoking-associated risks such as mouth cancer, lung diseases, and myocardial infarction ( 24 , 25 ). However, there are limited studies into knowledge, attitude, and BI among waterpipe tobacco smokers.…”