Soccer heading immediately alters brain function and brain-muscle communication

Abstract

IntroductionThere is growing evidence of a link between repetitive soccer heading and the increased incidence of neurodegenerative disease. Even a short bout of soccer heading has been shown to impair cognitive performance and disrupt movement control. However, a greater understanding of the mechanisms behind these immediate impairments is needed. The current study attempted to identify how a short bout of soccer heading alters brain function and brain-muscle communication during a movement task.MethodsSixty soccer players were exposed to either an acute bout (i.e., 20 balls thrown underarm) of soccer heading (n = 30) or a control condition where participants (n = 30) headed soccer balls in virtual reality (VR). Before and after heading, we measured cognitive performance on the King-Devick test, as well as electromyography (EMG), electroencephalography (EEG) and brain-muscle communication (i.e., corticomuscular coherence; CMC) during a force precision task.ResultsFollowing the heading protocol, the VR group improved their cognitive performance whereas the Heading group showed no change. Both groups displayed more precise force contractions at post-test. However, the VR group displayed elevated frontal theta activity and global increases in alpha and beta activity during the contraction task, whereas the Heading group did not. Contrary to our expectations, the Heading group displayed elevated CMC, whereas the VR group showed no change.DiscussionOur findings indicate a short bout of soccer heading may impair cognitive function and disrupt the organization of efficient neural processes that typically accompany motor skill proficiency. Soccer heading also induced corticomuscular hyperconnectivity, which could represent compensatory brain-muscle communication and an inefficient allocation of increased task-related neuromuscular resources. These initial findings offer insights to the mechanisms behind the impairments experienced after a short bout of repetitive soccer heading.

Sub-concussive head impacts from heading footballs do not acutely alter brain excitability as compared to a control group

“…The rationale for manually throwing the ball was to best approximate practice and game conditions, as an effort to enhance ecological validity. Manually throwing the ball deviates from the protocol in Di Virgilio et al (2016; ref [ 24 ]), but aligns with other studies (see ref [ 31 ]). The ball was thrown at an average speed of 39km/h [ 24 ], which was measured upon each throw with a hand-held Velocity Speed Gun (Bushnell, model 101911).…”

“…To confirm this interpretation, future studies should include a control group that also does not experience any head acceleration by remaining at rest. Third, although the head acceleration values from the Headings group align with previous work [ 24 , 31 ], whether the head acceleration values from both the Headings and Control groups would differ based on the level of football expertise remains to be ascertained.…”

“…Specifically, accelerometer data were recorded for three reasons. First, it was to confirm that peak head acceleration upon performing headings would replicate the values reported by Di Virgilio et al (2016; ref [ 24 ]), which were 13.1 ± 1.9g (see ref [ 31 ] for similar results). Second, it was to substantiate that peak head acceleration was greater in the Headings than in the Control group, as the control intervention (i.e., moving the lower limb to control the football) was hypothesised to indirectly cause head movements as well.…”

“…The CSP ( Fig 1A ), the CSE, and the Rivermead Post-Concussion Questionnaire data were measured before (Pre Measures) and after (Post Measures; Fig 1C ) participants either headed the ball or used their dominant lower-limb to control the ball ( Fig 1B ). In both groups, participants experienced 20 throws [ 31 ], at a rate of 1 throw every 30 seconds (similar average throw rate as in Di Virgilio et al, 2016; ref [ 24 ]). Trials where participants missed the ball were performed again to ensure that a total of 20 contacts with the ball were experienced.…”

Exploring the effects of 3D-360°VR and 2D viewing modes on gaze behavior, head excursion, and workload during a boxing specific anticipation task

“…Despite these limitations, we believe there is significant added value in continuing to evaluate the validity of such technology, particularly in a sport like boxing which presents a high risk of injury ( Di Virgilio et al, 2019 ). For example, this kind of tool could be useful in quantifying the risk of repeated impacts ( Parr et al, 2023 ), or in proposing complementary and safe training tools that limit the impact of repeated blows ( Lozano-Tarazona and Mauricio Rivera Pinzón, 2023 ), such has previously demonstrated in soccer.…”