Social Exclusion of Australian Childless Women in Their Reproductive Years

Abstract

Research suggests Australian childless women are at risk of pronatalism-driven social exclusion. This exploratory, mixed methods, cross-sectional study described and explored the social exclusion of Australian childless women aged 25 to 44 years, and asked: what are the nature and extent of social exclusion of childless women; and do the nature and extent of exclusion vary for different types of childless women? A total of 776 childless female Australian residents aged 25 to 44 years completed a self-administered questionnaire. Quantitative data were collected on childlessness types, indicators of exclusion and perceived stigmatisation and exclusion due to being childless. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, One Way ANOVAs and Kruskal Wallis Analysis of Ranks. Qualitative data on childless women's experiences were inductively thematically analysed. Findings suggest societal-level pronatalism drives exclusion of Australian childless women. While exclusion occurs in all domains of life, childless women experience more exclusion, and perceive more exclusion due to being childless, in the social and civic domains than the service and economic domains. Circumstantially and involuntarily childless women, followed by voluntarily childless women, perceive more exclusion due to being childless than undecided and future childed women. Experiences are influenced by the nature of women's 'deviance' from pronatalism.

Social connection and exclusion of Australian women with no children during midlife

“…There is evidence pronatalism pervades the community, relationship and individual levels through cultures, attitudes and beliefs of women with children as natural and inevitable, and women with no children as unnatural and discredited (Çopur & Koropeckyj-Cox, 2010;Gillespie, 2000;Koropeckyj-Cox & Pendell, 2007;LaMastro, 2001;Rich et al, 2011;Turnbull, Graham & Taket, 2016). Research also suggests pronatalism-driven stigmatisation can vary between typologies of women with no children (Kopper & Smith, 2001;Lampman & Dowling-Guyer, 1995), including involuntarily childless women, who wanted to have biological children but could not achieve a viable pregnancy (Daniluk, 2001); circumstantially childless women, who could not have children as a result of circumstances such as partner infertility, having no partner, financial constraints, or health issues other than those preventing a viable pregnancy (Cannold, 2005); and voluntarily childless women, who freely chose not to have children (Veevers, 1979).…”

“…The majority of studies in the social domain focus on women or adults with no children during later life (including age ranges 60 years and older) (see for example Cwikel, Gramotnev & Lee, 2006;Dykstra & Wagner, 2007;Grundy & Read, 2012;Vikström et al, 2011;Wenger et al, 2007). A smaller body of research investigates women with no children in their reproductive years (see for example Albertini & Mencarini, 2014;Koropeckyj-Cox, 2002;McNamee & James, 2012;Turnbull, Graham & Taket, 2016;Wagner, Wrzus, Neyer & Lang, 2015). The extant research on the social networks, interaction, support and participation of women with no children is inconsistent and inconclusive; and provides no evidence on women during midlife.…”

“…The civic domain includes volunteering and participating in community and political groups, activities and events (Levitas, 2006). The limited research in the civic domain investigates women with no children in their later years (Cwikel et al, 2006;Wenger et al, 2007) and reproductive years (Turnbull, Graham & Taket, 2016). These studies are inconclusive, finding an increased likelihood of involvement in volunteering for unmarried Australian women with no children aged 73 to 78 years (Cwikel et al, 2006); no difference in participation in voluntary work or associations between 'late-life' adults with and without children from nine countries, including Australia (Wenger et al, 2007); and low levels of participation in community groups, activities and events by women with no children in their reproductive years (Turnbull, Graham & Taket, 2016).…”

“…In the service domain, the extent to which services are available, accessible, affordable and appropriate needs to be considered (Levitas, 2006). There is limited and inconsistent research in the service domain on women with no children during their reproductive years and late life (Bernstein, 2001;Cwikel et al, 2006;Turnbull, Graham & Taket, 2016) and no evidence relating to women with no children during midlife.…”

“…The economic domain includes financial and material resources, employment, and the quality of working lives (Levitas et al, 2007;Popay et al, 2008). The majority of research in the economic domain investigates women during their reproductive years (Abma & Martinez, 2006;McNamee & James, 2012;Miranti et al, 2009;Misra, Budig, & Boeckmann, 2011;Turnbull, Graham & Taket, 2016;Waren & Pals, 2013), their working years (see for example Baumle, 2009;Berdahl & Moon, 2013;Casper, Weltman, & Kwesiga, 2007;Hamilton, Gordon, & Whelan-Berry, 2006;Swanberg, Pitt-Catsouphes, & Drescher-Burke, 2005), and later life (including age ranges above 65 years) (Cwikel et al, 2006;Dykstra & Wagner, 2007;Hank & Wagner, 2013;Koropeckyj-Cox & Call, 2007). The limited research with women during midlife has found a positive association between having no children and higher incomes in the United States for married women aged 45 to 66 years (Huber, Bookstein, & Fieder, 2010), and in Australia for women aged 40 to 54 years; but no independent association between having no children and higher occupational status in Australian women aged 40 to 54 years (Parr, 2005).…”