Socio-economic determinants of women’s livelihood time use in rural Bangladesh

Gendered dimensions of educational premium disadvantage in earnings in USA, 2019

“…Thomas also finds that when women have better access to overall resources at home to take care of their household-activities, their participation in the labor market improves significantly (also see Islam & Sharma, 2022 ). Regarding this, a recent report by the Washington Center for Equitable Growth suggests that given the constraints faced by women at the household level, they are forced to make difficult choices by undertaking a larger share of unpaid activities within their homes such that it protects their family’s overall economic wellbeing (see Glynn, 2018 ; Islam & Faisal, 2021; Kantor, 2009 ).…”

“…Simultaneously, other research has also indicated that despite adequate educational attainment and technical skills, women across the globe have continued to face occupational discrimination across industries (HTTP1, HTTP2). Even though women have economically been part and parcel of their households and family incomes since ages, largely contributing through their undervalued and unrecognized unpaid works (Islam & Sharma, 2021 , 2022 ; Kantor, 2009 ), it is no surprise that their gains in earnings have had to tread through far larger burdens of discriminations and biases in a society that still favors and pays males over females, even within feminine industries (Coe et al, 2012 ; Sharma, 2021a , 2021b ).…”

“…Gender inequality not only affects the current generation, but it can hamper the progress and well-being of future generations (Bucciarelli et al, 2011 ). When women are paid lower wages in the labor market, they feel demotivated to even participate as the opportunity costs of the balancing act between work and home impacts their decision making (Elson, 1999 ; Kantor, 2009 ; Islam & Sharma, 2021 , 2022 ; Sharma, 2021a , 2021b . At other times, many institutions are intentionally not inclusive enough to attract women to work (Kantor, 2009 ) despite their skills.…”

“…Regarding this, a recent report by the Washington Center for Equitable Growth suggests that given the constraints faced by women at the household level, they are forced to make difficult choices by undertaking a larger share of unpaid activities within their homes such that it protects their family’s overall economic wellbeing (see Glynn, 2018 ; Islam & Faisal, 2021; Kantor, 2009 ). Women’s reduced involvement in paid jobs and sacrifices toward overall economic wellbeing of the home is due to their disproportionate involvement in the household’s ‘dependent care’ and numerous other unpaid activities that are largely unaccounted for and monetarily undervalued in almost all societies (Coe et al, 2012 ; Islam & Sharma, 2021 , 2022 ). To address these elements of gender inequalities, and achieve better gender equality and parity, the Washington Report, ( 2019 ) recommends various policy measures, such as the Child Care for Working Families Act, The FAMILY Act, The Schedules That Work Act, State-specific paid family leave policies, and the like.…”

“…Others argue that women’s biological clocks and societal pressures toward family-making, childcare and other reproductive needs indeed throw them out of the labor market, which imposes a distortion on the economy in the same ways as do gender gaps in education (Elson, 1999 ; Esteve-Volart, 2004 ; Islam & Sharma, 2022 ; Sharma, 2021a , 2021b ). Such family-making gaps artificially reduce the pool of talent from which employers can draw upon, per Becker, ( 1994 ), which eventually reduces the availability of the workforce (e.g.…”