Socioeconomic gradients in child development in very young children: Evidence from India, Indonesia, Peru, and Senegal

Abstract

Gradients across socio-economic position exist for many measures of children's health and development in higher-income countries. These associations may not be consistent, however, among the millions of children living in lower-and middle-income countries. Our objective was to examine child development and growth in young children across socio-economic position in four developing countries. We used cross-sectional surveys, child development assessments, measures of length (LAZ), and home stimulation (Family Care Index) of children in India, Indonesia, Peru, and Senegal. The Extended Ages and Stages Questionnaire (EASQ) was administered to parents of all children ages 3-23 mo in the household (n =8,727), and length measurements were taken for all children 0-23 mo (n = 11,102). Household wealth and maternal education contributed significantly and independently to the variance in EASQ and LAZ scores in all countries, while controlling for child's age and sex, mother's age and marital status, and household size. Being in the fifth wealth quintile in comparison with the first quintile was associated with significantly higher EASQ scores (0.27 to 0.48 of a standardized score) and higher LAZ scores (0.37 to 0.65 of a standardized score) in each country, while controlling for maternal education and covariates. Wealth and education gradients increased over the first two years in most countries for both EASQ and LAZ scores, with larger gradients seen in 16-23-mo-olds than in 0-7mo-olds. Mediation analyses revealed that parental home stimulation activities and LAZ were significant mediating variables and explained up to 50% of the wealth effects on the EASQ. income inequality | low-income countries | poverty

Cognitive Deficit and Poverty in the First 5 Years of Childhood in Bangladesh

“…7 The effect of poverty on child development was larger (0.4-0.5 SD) in children 16 to 23 months than younger children in India and Indonesia, but there was no age difference in Peru and Senegal. 8 It is likely that the cross-sectional design accounts for this inconsistency.…”

“…7 More recently, 4 crosssectional studies showed wealth at birth and maternal education were related to mothers' reports of communication, gross motor, and personal/social development in children 3 to 23 months. 8 Longitudinal studies are needed to determine when the effects of poverty first become apparent and what risks mediate the effect at different ages. Several longitudinal studies have shown growth failure in the first 2 years is related to later cognition 9 and schooling.…”

Early Childhood Development: Wealth, the Nurturing Environment and Inequality First Results from the PRIDI Database

“…From this point onwards, the interaction of the child with her environment matters more for her development. The poorer the household both in terms of wealth and stimulation, the more likely it is that the child will have lower levels of development (Fernald et al, 2012); deficits observed early in life accumulate, as do the missed opportunities for their mitigation. In short, wealth and stimulation gradients are present across most domains of child development, and tend to increase over time.…”

“…A robust literature suggests that where and to whom a child is born can predict her economic and social outcomes later in life (Berlinksi and Schady, 2015; Center for Child Development at Harvard University et al, 2007;Engle et al, 2007;Fernald et al, 2012;Grantham-McGregor et al, 2007;Heckman 2000;Heckman and Masterov, 2004;Paxson and Schady 2007;Schady 2006Schady , 2011Shonkoff and Phillips, 2000;Vegas and Santibáñez, 2010;Walker et al, 2007;among others). Children born to parents who invest emotional and economic resources in their development tend to become healthy and productive adults, passing on the advantages that such investments bring to their own children.…”

Wealth Disparities for Early Childhood Anthropometrics and Skills: Evidence from Chilean Longitudinal Data

“…In this context, it is relevant to study how early human capital varies by the socioeconomic level of the household. Several papers - Paxson and Schady (2007), Fernald et al (2011), Fernald et al (2012, Schady et al (2015), Rubio-Codina et al (2015), . 10 Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua (2006); Stein et al (2016); Schott et al (2017) 11 Conley and Bennett, (2000); Behrman and Rosenzweig, (2004); Currie and Almond (2011);Torche and Echevarría (2011);Torche and Conley (2016) 12 Hoddinott et al (2008Hoddinott et al ( , 2013; Victora et al (2008); Behrman et al (2009);Maluccio et al (2009);Stein et al (2010Stein et al ( , 2013; Martorell et al (2010); Kuzawa et al (2012); Norris et al (2012);Crookston, et al (2013);Gertler et al (2014) human capital.…”