Sodium and Potassium Intake and Cardiovascular Disease in Older People: A Systematic Review

Abstract

This review aims to examine the relationship of sodium and potassium intake and cardiovascular disease (CVD) among older people. Methods: We performed a literature search using PubMed and Web of Science (January 2015 to July 2020) without language restriction. Observational and experimental studies that reported the relationship between sodium, potassium, or sodium-to-potassium ratio with CVD among older adults aged higher than 60 years were included. The authors independently screened all identified studies, extracted information, and assessed the quality of included studies. Risk of bias was assessed using the Risk of Bias Assessment Tool for Nonrandomized Studies (RoBANS) for observational studies and the revised Cochrane risk-of-bias tool (RoB 2 tool) for randomized trials. Results: We included 12 studies (6 prospective cohort studies, 5 cross-sectional studies, and 1 experimental study). Five of the studies reported on sodium-to-potassium ratio (n = 5), and the others on potassium and/or sodium intake. Cardiovascular events (e.g., stroke and heart failure) were the most reported outcome (n = 9). Of the 12 studies included, five observational studies had low bias risk and the randomized controlled trial was judged as uncertain risk of bias. We found inconsistent results for the effect of the reduction of sodium intake in this population for lower risk of CVD. We found that both the increase of potassium intake and the decrease of sodium-to-potassium ratio were associated with lower risk of hypertension and CVD, particularly stroke. Conclusion: The present review suggests that both higher potassium and lower sodium-to-potassium ratio are associated with lower risk of CVD.

A New Carbohydrate Food Quality Scoring System to Reflect Dietary Guidelines: An Expert Panel Report

“…Due to their complex inter-relationships, these electrolyte minerals are often studied in tandem, with the dietary sodium:potassium ratio being used in research on animal health for nearly a century [ 35 ]. A culmination of evidence from human studies shows that a high sodium-to-potassium ratio is associated with hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and kidney disease, and that simple dietary changes to balance out this ratio may reduce these risks [ 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 ]. Although the DGA emphasizes the adequate intake of multiple micronutrients of concern related to CF intake (i.e., potassium for underconsumption and sodium for overconsumption) [ 5 ], carbohydrate quality metrics rarely consider the role of these micronutrients in CF quality.…”

Comparative study of micronutrient content in soft rice beverages based on green and black tea

“…It also has antioxidant properties and provides a defense system against free radicals in the human body. It is an important component of dozens of proteins and enzymes [50].…”

Nutrients and Dietary Approaches in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Cardiovascular Disease: A Narrative Review

“…By contrast, low magnesium levels could result in impaired insulin action as well as an altered cellular glucose transport, which promotes peripheral IR in T2DM [111], and its dietary supplementation may reduce the risk of T2DM-associated CVD due to a favorable effect on HDL, LDL, fasting plasma glucose, C-reactive protein (CRP), and insulin [112,113]. The beneficial role of potassium seems clear since its intake and a lower sodium-to-potassium ratio are associated with a lower risk of CVD, CHD, and hypertension, thereby improving glucose control and limiting the risk of diabetes [114][115][116][117]. On the same lines, epidemiologic studies suggest that low dietary potassium intake or serum potassium levels are associated with a higher risk of IR or T2DM [118].…”