Soiling of building stones in urban environments

Grossi, Carlota M.; Esbert, R. M.; Díaz-Pache, Francisco; Alonso, F. J.

doi:10.1016/s0360-1323(02)00017-3

Cited by 108 publications

(68 citation statements)

References 8 publications

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“…Smith 1996). In addition it has been emphasized that surface properties play a key role in pollution entrapment and various types of crust formation (Amoroso and Fassina 1983;Zappia et al 1998;Grossi et al 2003). Nevertheless, most previous studies have largely focused on the description of processes and decay products of limestone; fewer studies are available analyzing the mineralogical and related physical changes that are triggered by pollution fluxes.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Morphology and detachment mechanism of weathering crusts of porous limestone in the urban environment of Budapest

Török¹

2007

Central European Geology

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A fine-grained and a medium-grained oolitic limestone of Miocene age were studied on ashlars of monuments in Budapest. The studied buildings are located in a polluted urban environment. The surface alteration is characterized by the presence of white (thin and thick) and black (laminar and framboidal) weathering crusts. Flaking, scaling and blistering are common crust detachment forms. Crust detachment is followed by rapid surface loss in the form of granular disintegration or of secondary crusts stabilizing the stone surface. Non-destructive in situ mechanical tests such as Schmidt hammer rebound and Duroscope clearly document the presence of thin and thick weathering crusts, and the degradation of underlying fine-and medium-grained limestone. Crust formation is associated with a textural change, since precipitation of pore-occluding calcite and gypsum and reduction of porosity in the crust zone has been recorded. Crust detachment is attributed to the crystallization pressure of air pollution-related gypsum, to freeze/thaw cycles, and to differences in mechanical properties of crust and host rock.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Morphology and detachment mechanism of weathering crusts of porous limestone in the urban environment of Budapest

Török¹

2007

Central European Geology

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“…They also vary depending on orientation and position of the stone construction. It has been shown in previous studies that the principal types of deposits critically depend on the way in which the surface is wetted by rain~Camuffo, 1981; Grossi et al, 2003!. The various morphologies and colors of the deposits make it more difficult to find the causes and prevention, as well as removing solution. In order to set up the appropriate conservation remedy, it is important to know their origins, characteristics, and composition.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Characterization of White and Black Deposits on the Surface of Korean Stone Cultural Heritages

et al. 2013

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White and black deposits have been frequently observed on the surface of Korean stone cultural heritages, and they are considered as damage factors in both conservation and esthetic points of view. In order to set up the appropriate conservation remedy, it is important to know their origins, characteristics, and compositions. In this study, optical and scanning electron microscopes~SEMs! equipped with an energydispersive spectrometer~EDS! and X-ray diffractometer were employed to determine the white and black deposits. It was found that both deposits consisted mainly of calcium carbonate~calcite! and calcium sulfatẽ gypsum!. The calcite and gypsum were characterized by bladed, rhombohedral, tabular, and amorphous morphologies under a SEM. The black deposit was not only composed of calcite or gypsum, but also accompanied amorphous and irregular matrix. SEM-EDS analysis revealed an abundance of silicon, aluminum, iron, phosphorus, and carbon on the matrix, which were major elements of soil, atmospheric deposits, and organisms. The white deposit, on the other hand, barely contained those coloring substances. These salts and deposited substances were caused by chemical reaction and physical adhesion between rock-forming minerals, lime mortar, sulfur in polluted air environment, soil dust, and microorganisms.

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“…Particulate matter (PM) can cause damage to outdoorexposed stone surfaces (Camuffo et al, 1982;Grossi et al, 2003;Ferm et al, 2006). Recently, its role in materialsdecay processes is receiving growing attention (together with NO x and O 3 ) due to the decreasing concentrations of other gas-phased acid pollutants such as SO 2 (Ferm et al, 2005;Kucera et al, 2007;Ghedini et al, 2011;Urosevic et al, 2012).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Experimental Measurements of Particulate Matter Deliquescence and Crystallization Relative Humidity: Application in Heritage Climatology

Casati

Rovelli

Perrone

et al. 2015

Aerosol Air Qual. Res.

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Climate and pollution can lead to materials weathering. In this study, an innovative method is employed to evaluate the hazard for heritage stone substrates induced by the synergic effect of particulate matter (PM) and climate. In this respect, two hazard indicators for stone materials were determined: the time of wetness and the number of dissolution and crystallization cycles. The two indicators were computed by coupling experimental measurements of the PM deliquescence and crystallization relative humidity with climatic data. For the first time, these indicators were estimated based on the PM hygroscopic properties, considering its whole hysteresis loop and its consequent hydration level.The proposed method was applied to PM samples collected in the polluted Po Valley (Milan): the experimental measurements of both PM deliquescence and crystallization relative humidity were performed in an environmental-controlled chamber using an electrical conductivity method. The time of wetness and the number of dissolution and crystallization cycles were then calculated by coupling the PM deliquescence and crystallization relative humidity with climatic data of Milan over the last decade (2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013). Results point out that, depending on the seasons, different hazards were identified. In winter, high time of wetness (89 ± 11%) and low number of cycles (3 ± 3 cycles/month) were found. Conversely, summer was characterized by low time of wetness (20 ± 13%) and high number of cycles (11 ± 5 cycles/month). Interestingly, spring and fall resulted the most dangerous seasons for outdoor-exposed stones, since they presented both high time of wetness and number of cycles. Since the two indicators are calculated considering PM properties and climatic data, their values are site-specific, while the method used for their determination is of general application and it can be used for an efficient hazard assessment in a heritage climatology perspective.

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Soiling of building stones in urban environments

Cited by 108 publications

References 8 publications

Morphology and detachment mechanism of weathering crusts of porous limestone in the urban environment of Budapest

Morphology and detachment mechanism of weathering crusts of porous limestone in the urban environment of Budapest

Characterization of White and Black Deposits on the Surface of Korean Stone Cultural Heritages

Experimental Measurements of Particulate Matter Deliquescence and Crystallization Relative Humidity: Application in Heritage Climatology

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