Solid‐state Li–air batteries: Fundamentals, challenges, and strategies

Abstract

The landmark Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario requires the revolution of today's energy system for realizing nonenergy‐related global economy. Advanced batteries with high energy density and safety are expected to realize the shift of end‐use sectors toward renewable and clean sources of electricity. Present Li‐ion technologies have dominated the modern energy market but face with looming challenges of limited theoretical specific capacity and high cost. Li–air(O2) battery, characterized by energy‐rich redox chemistry of Li stripping/plating and oxygen conversion, emerges as a promising “beyond Li‐ion” strategy. In view of the superior stability and inherent safety, a solid‐state Li–air battery is regarded as a more practical choice compared to the liquid‐state counterpart. However, there remain many challenges that retard the development of solid‐state Li–air batteries. In this review, we provide an in‐depth understanding of fundamental science from both thermodynamics and kinetics of solid‐state Li–air batteries and give a comprehensive assessment of the main challenges. The discussion of effective strategies along with authoritative demonstrations for achieving high‐performance solid‐state Li–air batteries is presented, including the improvement of cathode kinetics and durability, solid electrolyte design, Li anode optimization and protection, as well as interfacial engineering.

Aqueous MnO2/Mn2+ electrochemistry in batteries: progress, challenges, and perspectives

“…For instance, the theoretical research about the quantitative understanding of the electrochemistry and mass transport coupling proposed in Li–O 2 batteries is worthy of reference, which offers a promising approach for analyzing the reaction mechanisms of such solid product conversion systems. 131,132…”

Solid-state electrolytes for inhibiting active species crossover in lithium metal batteries: a review

“…Typically, there are a variety of polymer hosts for the polymer electrolytes, such as PAN, poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), poly(tetrafluoroethylene) (PTFE), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF), PVDF-HFP, poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), and so on. 112…”

Recent Progress of Electrolyte Materials for Solid‐State Lithium–Oxygen (Air) Batteries

“…[16] The interface between the solid-state electrolyte and the lithium metal electrode can be examined using scanning electron microscopy to characterize the interface. [8,32] Vickers hardness and fracture toughness, key mechanical properties of solid-state electrolytes, are primarily assessed using the Vickers hardness tester and indentation method. [33,34] Ionic conductivity, electrode compatibility, and stability to air and moisture are crucial factors influencing the electrochemical performance of open-system solid-state Li-air batteries.…”

“…During the charging and discharging process of the battery, the decisive steps of charging and discharging are the growth of Li 2 O 2 clusters and the oxidation of LiO 2 , respectively. [5][6][7][8] The most critical part of an SSLAB is the solid electrolyte, which often determines the electrochemical performance. The conventional organic liquid electrolyte has become one of the most widely used electrolytes in studies of lithium-air batteries due to its high ionic conductivity and ability to wet the electrode surface.…”

“…During the charging and discharging process of the battery, the decisive steps of charging and discharging are the growth of Li 2 O 2 clusters and the oxidation of LiO 2 , respectively. [ 5–8 ]…”