‘Sometimes I feel like the problems started with desegregation’: exploring Black superintendent perspectives on desegregation policy

The Civic Empowerment Gap: Defining the Problem and Locating Solutions

“…In a 1998 survey, for example, African American survey respondents joined White respondents in ranking racial diversity second from the bottom of their preferred characteristics for a good school (Public Agenda Foundation, 1998); this stands in stark contrast to Blacks' attitudes in the 1970s and 1980s, when integration was a high priority not only in principle but also in practice. Integration is viewed by many as "yesterday's struggle" (Loury, 1997), with greater importance being placed on students' obtaining an "equal opportunity to learn" (Ladson-Billings, 2004), whether in integrated or segregated settings (Horsford & McKenzie, 2008;Walker & Archung, 2003;Shujaa, 1996). African American and Latino political leaders have similarly shifted their focus from integration to equality of opportunity.…”

Where Is the Real Reform? African American Students and Their School’s Expectations for Academic Performance

“…Although studies suggest racial segregation has caused negative psychological and health outcomes for African Americans (Bireda, 2011;Clark & Clark, 1939;Horsford, & McKenzie, 2008;Kramer & Hogue, 2009), it is time to revisit these problems from the vantage point of school reform. In this supposed post-racial era where concerns for racism have diminished in the dominant discourse, it is important to examine why educational disparity has continued, especially in racially integrated classrooms.…”

Twelve Years Unslaved: Lessons From Reconstruction and Brown for Contemporary School Leaders

“…Scholarship has continued to build on Bell's analysis of Brown, highlighting the complexity of the Black community's stance on integration and the flawed outcomes of the case (Carson, 2004;Gaines, 2004;Guinier, 2004;Horsford & McKenzie, 2008;Ladson-Billings, 2004). Carson (2004) expressed ambivalence over the case, both noting its influence on race relations and acknowledging its shortcomings.…”