Sources and Determinants of Discretionary Food Intake in a Cohort of Australian Children Aged 12–14 Months

Abstract

Despite recommendations to the contrary, consumption of discretionary (energy-dense, nutrient-poor) foods begins for some children early in the weaning period, and the proportion of children consuming discretionary foods increases markedly in the second year of life. The purpose of this study was to determine intake and sources of discretionary foods in a cohort of 828 Australian toddlers (mean age: 13.1mo), and to identify determinants of discretionary food intake. At approximately 12 months of age, 3 non-consecutive days of dietary intake data were collected using a 24-h recall and 2-day food record, and the percentage total energy derived from discretionary foods was estimated. Linear regression was used to identify associations between discretionary food intake and socio-demographic determinants (mother’s age, level of education, country of birth, pre-pregnancy body mass index, socioeconomic position, parity, age of child when mother returned to work, and child’s sex) and age at which complementary foods were introduced. The average energy intake of children in this cohort was 4040 (±954.7 SD) kJ with discretionary foods contributing an average of 11.2% of total energy. Sweet biscuits, and cakes, muffins, scones and cake-type desserts contributed 10.8% and 10.2% of energy intake from discretionary foods, respectively. Other key contributors to energy intake from discretionary foods included sausages, frankfurters and saveloys (8.3%), vegetable products and dishes where frying was the main cooking technique (8.6%), butter (7.3%), and finally manufactured infant sweet or savory snack foods (9.3%). Higher intakes of discretionary food were associated with children having two or more siblings (p = 0.002), and being born to younger mothers (<25 years) (p = 0.008) and mothers born in Australia or the United Kingdom (p < 0.001). Parents, in particular young mothers and those with larger families, need practical guidance on how much of, and how often, these foods should be eaten by their children.

Exploring Feeding Practices and Food Literacy in Parents with Young Children from Disadvantaged Areas

“…The Australian Bureau of Statistics estimates that one in four (24.6%) 2–4-year-olds are overweight or obese [ 7 ]. Studies of Australian children aged less than 2 years indicate that the consumption of discretionary foods that are energy dense and nutrient poor begins early in the weaning period and increases markedly in the second year of life [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. Additionally, parents and children living with social disadvantage are at greater risk of poor health, including being overweight or obese and, therefore, should be a priority for interventions [ 11 ].…”

Sources and Determinants of Wholegrain Intake in a Cohort of Australian Children Aged 12–14 Months

“…Complete dietary data for all 3 days were available for 828 children. Previous investigations of population parameters have found that the sample characteristics of this cohort are diverse and generally representative of the total South Australian Births that year [ 19 , 21 , 26 ]. The majority of participating mothers were aged between 25 and 34 years of age, had commenced or completed university studies, were born in Australia or New Zealand, and had one or two children ( Table 1 ).…”

“…Additionally, it has been suggested that less stringent parenting practices are employed in multiple‑child families when compared to single‑child families [ 50 ] and that a child’s food exposures are shaped by the food preferences of older siblings [ 45 , 51 ]. These factors may lead to a greater consumption of energy‑dense, nutrient‑poor, non‑core foods and drinks within multiple‑child families [ 19 , 52 ], which may displace foods high in wholegrain.…”

“…Neither the most recent 2011–2013 Australian Health Survey [ 15 ] nor the 2007 National Children’s Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey [ 16 ] examined the dietary intakes of children younger than 2 years of age, so dietary reporting of this group in Australia tends to come from longitudinal cohort data. The Study of Mothers’ and Infants’ Life Events affecting oral health (SMILE) is one of a few such studies providing data on this age group [ 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 ].…”

Study of Mothers’ and Infants’ Life Events Affecting Oral Health (SMILE) birth cohort study: cohort profile

“… 28 At 1 year, 96% of children had consumed discretionary foods, which contributed on average 11.2% of total energy. 29 Between 1 and 2 years, intake of free sugars increased sharply, contributing 3.6% (IQR: 1.6–4.8) of total energy intake at 1 and 22.5% at 2 years (IQR: 12.8–37.7). 30 The proportion of participants that exceeded the WHO recommendations that <10% of energy should come from free sugars 9 increased substantially from 1 (2.5%) to 2 years (38.0%).…”