Sources of mummy bitumen in ancient Egypt and Palestine

Abstract

Bitumen used as a preservative in ancient Egyptian mummies was previously thought to come only from the Dead Sea in Palestine. Other, closer sources of bitumen were investigated at Abu Durba and Gebel Zeit on the shores of Egypt's Gulf of Suez. Bitumen from these localities and from five mummies was analysed using molecular biomarkers derived from gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. It was found that four of the mummies contained Dead Sea bitumen, and the fifth and oldest (900 BC) had bitumen from Gebel Zeit, thus providing the first evidence for the use of an indigenous source of bitumen in ancient Egypt.

Organic geochemistry indicates Gebel El Zeit, Gulf of Suez, is a source of bitumen used in some Egyptian mummies

“…As shown previously (Rullkötter and Nissenbaum, 1988;Maurer et al, 2002;Harrel and Lewan, 2002), the sterane and terpane biomarker ratios of bitumens in the balms of Egyptian mummies of Cleopatra, Soter, Djedoler, Priest, and mummies 10 and 13 Table II. from the Dakhleh Oasis have molecular indices similar to those of oils and asphalts from the Dead Sea area (see Figures 5a, b). The latter originate from Senonian limestone, probably generated from carbonate or evaporitic sediments that were deposited under hypersaline conditions.…”

Queen Nefertari, the Royal Spouse of Pharaoh Ramses II: A Multidisciplinary Investigation of the Mummified Remains Found in Her Tomb (QV66)

“…The results of the chemistry of the embalming agents suggest a date earlier than the 3 rd Intermediate Period, which is consistent with the evidence for the mummification materials and methods detailed below: the absence of bitumen is consistent with a New Kingdom date since it does not appear in balms from mummies until 900 BC [35,36]. The use of bitumen, and more liberal employment of tree resins in the embalming recipes, is seen in 3 rd Intermediate Period mummies and later, the use and proportion of both in relation to the plant oil/animal fat base increasing over time with greatest use during the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods [35,37–39].…”

Cultural and trade practices in Sincu Bara (Senegal): a multi-proxy investigation

“…The Insoll and Shaw (1997) trade network not only links Mali to Egypt but also exhibits some roads toward Morocco, Tunisia and Libya, all of which can be regarded as bitumen sources. Dead Sea bitumen, already proved to be widely used in Egypt (e.g., Harrell andLewan, 2002 andConnan andNissenbaum, 2004 for its origin), could also be considered as the origin of the Sincu Bara bitumen. Moreover, it is equally probable that Nigeria itself could be the source of the bitumen used in Sincu Bara.…”