Spatial Disparities in the Distribution of Parks and Green Spaces in the USA

Abstract

Background Little national evidence is available on spatial disparities in distributions of parks and green spaces in the USA. Purpose This study examines ecological associations of spatial access to parks and green spaces with percentages of black, Hispanic, and low-income residents across the urban–rural continuum in the conterminous USA. Methods Census tract-level park and green space data were linked with data from the 2010 U.S. Census and 2006–2010 American Community Surveys. Linear mixed regression models were performed to examine these associations. Results Poverty levels were negatively associated with distances to parks and percentages of green spaces in urban/suburban areas while positively associated in rural areas. Percentages of blacks and Hispanics were in general negatively linked to distances to parks and green space coverage along the urban–rural spectrum. Conclusions Place-based race–ethnicity and poverty are important correlates of spatial access to parks and green spaces, but the associations vary across the urbanization levels.

Are There Relationships Among Racial Segregation, Economic Isolation, and Proximity to Green Space?

“…Similarly, findings from Baltimore indicate that a higher proportion of African Americans have access to parks within walking distance than whites, but whites have access to more acreage of parks within walking distance than African Americans (Boone et al, 2009). Findings from these intensive cases studies of specific cities have been replicated on a national scale and show that members of disadvantaged groups live closer to green space such as parks but live in census tracts with less green space (Wen et al, 2013).…”

“…In particular, researchers have examined the proximity of different racial and economic groups to green space such as urban parks, street trees, greenways, and tree canopy cover. Urban green space has been identified as an environmental amenity by a variety of scholars and urban planners because it typically has two qualities: the presence of vegetation and social upkeep (Heynen, 2003;Heynen et al, 2006;Landry & Chakraborty, 2009;Lindsey et al, 2001;Sister et al, 2010;Troy et al, 2007;Wen et al, 2013;Wendel et al, 2011).…”

“…These alterations take the form of green medians, parks, greenways, and similar features (Heynen et al, 2006;Landry & Chakraborty, 2009;Lindsey et al, 2001;Wen et al, 2013). In these cases, the presence of green space is not necessarily "natural."…”

Introduction to the Active Living Research Supplement: Disparities in Environments and Policies that Support Active Living

“…As several studies in this special issue highlight [22], disparities in park availability-particularly in urban areas-are not as widespread as once hypothesized and reported [23,24]. Yet, parks remain underutilized by those in socioeconomically disadvantaged and racial/ethnic minority communities [25].…”

Mapping the distributive environmental justice of urban waters

“…Although green environments have a significant beneficial effect in all education groups, it is reported to be stronger for people with a lower SES (Maas et al 2006). However, there is evidence that lower SES neighbourhood lack nearby green areas comparing to high SES areas (Mitchell et al 2011;Wen et al 2013), thus we wanted to separately analyze high and low SES residential areas. The level of income used here is the household median income in an YKR grid divided by the average household size.…”